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B.Sc. Chemistry First Semester (I) Class Notes

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Atomic Structure B.Sc. 1st Semester

Atomic structure mcqs, 2nd semester(session: 2023-2027) batch start: 20th december 2023 @ 7.30am, atomic structure, bohr's theory.

Postulates of Bohr's Model of an Atom

Limitations of Bohr's Theory

Atomic spectrum of hydrogen atom.

Rydberg Formula

de-Broglie Wave Equation

Find the de broglie wavelength for an electron moving at the speed of 5.0×10 6 m/s (mass of an electron is 9.1×10 −31 kg ), heisenberg uncertainty principle, significance of the heisenberg uncertainty principle, a particle is moving with constant momentum. the uncertainty in the momentum of the particle is 3.3 x 10 -2 kg ms -1 . calculate the uncertainty position., heisenberg uncertainty principles has no significance in our everyday life. explain., quantum number, significance of quantum numbers, which of the following is a possible set of quantum numbers that describes an electron a. n = 3, ℓ = 2, m = −3, s = −1⁄2 b. n = 0, ℓ = 0, m = 0, s = +1⁄2 c. n = 4, ℓ = 2, m = −1, s = 0 d. n = 3, ℓ = 1, m = −1, s = +1⁄2 e. n = 4, ℓ = −3, m = −1, s = +1, schrödinger wave equation, physical significance of wave function, normalization of the wave function, orthogonalization of the wave function, sign of wave functions --> radial and angular wave functions for hydrogen atom, radial wave function, r (r), angular wave function, ψ (θ, ɸ), radial and angular distribution curves or functions.

Shapes of s, p, d and f Orbitals

Contour Boundary and Probability Diagrams --> Radial Nodes

Angular Nodes or Nodal Planes

Total Number of Nodes

Pauli's exclusions principle, applications of pauli's exclusion principle, hund's rule of maximum multiplicity.

Multiplicity

Aufbau's principle.

Limitations of Aufbau's Principle

Variations of orbital energy with atomic number, factors affecting the energy of orbitals, social profiles, recent updates, class timing, most viewed pages, board / university mcqs, about author.

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B.Sc. 1st Year Chemistry Notes

Syllabus: First Part Honours (BRABU Muzaffarpur)

Nine questions to be set. Five questions to be answered. Short answer type questions are recommended. There may be several parts in a question and different units may be mixed in questions. While setting questions the entire syllabus may be covered as far as practicable. Two questions to be answered from group 'A' and three questions to be answered from group 'B'

B.Sc. First Part Chemistry MCQs

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Fahrenheit:

Class Timing: 6 AM Topic: Physical Chemistry

NEET & IIT-JEE

M.sc. 1st semester, b.sc. (1st part), b.sc. (2nd part), b.sc. (3rd part), neet & iit-jee, class: 22.7.2023, time: 4pm-5.30pm, course duration: 8 months, complete course, revisition, dpp, test, assignments, practice mcq tests, about author.

Dr. Rakesh Srivastava M.Sc., DCE, CGSET, MPSET, Ph.D. About 15+ Years teaching experience of 11th, 12th, UG, PG, Biochemistry, IIT-JEE, NEET and Others. Specialization in Organic Chemistry. Intersted in Spectroscopy, Biochemistry, Natural Products and Environmental Chemistry. At present writing an Organic Chemistry Book

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BSc Physics 1st Year Syllabus: Subjects List, Electives & Practicals

Updated on - Feb 27, 2024

The BSc Physics 1st year syllabus is divided into two semesters consisting of both theory and practical subjects. BSc Physics 1st semester syllabus aims at imparting a strong foundation in physics with subjects such as Mechanics and Wave Motion, Circuit Fundamentals and Basic Electronics, Electricity, Magnetism, Electrostatics , etc., whereas the BSc Physics 2nd semester subjects include Kinetic Theory, Low-Temperature Physics, Waves and Oscillations, Applied Acoustics, etc.

In addition to the theory subjects, the BSc Physics syllabus covers practical topics such as Specific Heat by the Cooling-Graphical Method, Emissivity of Surface, Thermal Conductivity of Good Conductor by Searle’s Method, etc., for each semester. 

Table of Contents

BSc Physics 1st Year Syllabus

Bsc physics subjects 1st year & topics covered.

• BSc Physics 1st Sem Subjects in Detail
• BSc Physics 2nd Sem Subjects in Detail
• B.Sc Physics 1st Year Syllabus Practical Subjects

BSc Physics 1st year syllabus focuses on equipping students with adequate knowledge and understanding of the foundation subjects such as Mechanics and properties of Matter, Heat, Thermodynamics, Wave, Oscillation, Radiation , etc.

Given below is the semester-wise breakdown of the B.Sc Physics 1st Year Syllabus:

BSc Physics 1st year subjects deal with subjects such as language, foundations, structure, and all the concepts related to basic physics. The topics in the BSc Physics first-year subjects include Electronics, Electromagnetics, Wave and Oscillation, etc. Listed below are the semester-wise BSc Physics subjects 1st year along with the topics covered:

BSc Physics 1st Semester Subjects

The topics covered in the BSc Physics 1st semester subjects include an   introduction to diodes and transistors, their working and applications, Introduction to the world of digital electronics, use of basic logic gates, flip flops, registers and counters, Voltage and current sources; superposition theorem, etc. 

Listed below are the BSc Physics 1st Semester subjects and topics covered:

BSc Physics 2nd Semester Subjects

BSc Physics 2nd Semester subjects deal with topics such as e lectrostatics and magnetostatics leading to the fundamental laws of electrodynamics, dynamics of a charged particle in electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields and its applications, etc.

Listed below are the BSc Physics 2nd Semester subjects along with the topics covered:

Also, Check :

B.Sc Physics 1st Year Practical Subjects

B Sc Physics syllabus 1st year consists of practical topics for each semester to enhance the understanding of concepts and to build confidence among students in applying the concepts in a practical context. BSc Physics course offers an industry-oriented syllabus that helps students to work in research centers, educational institutes, and other sectors.

Listed below are some of the B.Sc Physics syllabus 1st Year practical topics:

Also Check : Career Opportunities after BSc Physics in India

BSc Physics 1st Year Question Paper Marking Scheme

The students pursuing BSc Physics are evaluated based on their practical marks, end-semester marks, and mid-semester marks. For subjects with practical topics, the theory paper will be for 75 marks with 25 marks allotted for the mid-semester examination. Listed below is the semester-wise marking scheme for BSc Physics 1st Year Syllabus:

BSc Physics 1st Semester Question Paper Marking Scheme

Given below is the marking scheme for BSc Physics 1st Semester Syllabus Question Paper:

BSc Physics 2nd Semester Question Paper Marking Scheme

Given below is the marking scheme for B.Sc Physics 2nd sem syllabus Question Paper:

BSc Physics Books 1st Year

Students can refer to books by famous scholars and professionals in the field of physics to gain in-depth knowledge about the topics covered in the syllabus and beyond such as thermodynamics, electromagnetics, optics, Newton's laws, kinetic theory, etc. Given below are some of the BSc physics books for 1st year:

Top BSc Physics Colleges

IISc Bangalore

Bangalore,Karnataka

Kanpur,Uttar Pradesh

IIT Kharagpur

Kharagpur,West Bengal

IIT Roorkee

Roorkee,Uttarakhand

Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham

Coimbatore,Tamil Nadu

Jadavpur University

Kolkata,West Bengal

University of Hyderabad (UOH)

Hyderabad,Telangana

Delhi University (DU)

Delhi,Delhi NCR

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Result Date: Mar 22, 2024

BSc Physics Fee Structure

What are the subjects in the B Sc 1st year Physics syllabus?

The B Sc Physics 1st year syllabus includes classical mechanics, mathematical physics, electricity and magnetism, thermodynamics, and an introduction to modern physics.

What are the topics covered in classical mechanics?

Topics include kinematics, Newton's laws, work and energy, rotational motion, and oscillations.

Do I need prior knowledge of physics to start BSc Physics 1st year?

While some basic understanding of physics and mathematics is beneficial, the first year is designed to provide foundational knowledge.

Do students have the option to choose elective courses in the BSc 1st year Physics syllabus?

The availability of elective courses varies, but in many programs, the first year is often structured with a fixed curriculum, offering core physics subjects and practical sessions.

What topics are covered in Electricity and Magnetism?

Electricity and Magnetism cover topics like Gauss's law, electric potential, capacitance, electric current, resistance, magnetic fields, Ampere's law, Faraday's law, etc.

How is the 1st-year Physics syllabus assessed?

1st BSc Physics syllabus, assessment criteria include written exams, practical experiments, assignments, viva, etc.

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Atomic Structure & Chemical Bonding Notes pdf bsc 1st year

Atomic structure and chemical bonding notes pdf.

Free Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding notes pdf are provided here for Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding students so that they can prepare and score high marks in their Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding exam.

In these free Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding notes pdf, we will study the atom, which is a necessary pre-requisite in understanding the nature of chemical bonding in compounds. It provides basic knowledge about ionic, covalent, and metallic bonding and explains that chemical bonding is best regarded as a continuum between the three cases. It discusses the periodicity in properties with reference to the s and p block, which is necessary for understanding their group chemistry.

We have provided complete Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding handwritten notes pdf for any university student of BCA, MCA, B.Sc, B.Tech, M.Tech branch to enhance more knowledge about the subject and to score better marks in their Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding exam.

Free Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding notes pdf are very useful for Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding students in enhancing their preparation and improving their chances of success in Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding exam.

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Topics in our Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding Notes PDF

The topics we will cover in these Atomic Structure & Chemical Bonding Notes PDF will be taken from the following list:

Atomic Structure: Recapitulation of Bohr’s theory, its limitations, and the atomic spectrum of hydrogen atom. Wave mechanics: de Broglie equation, Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, and its significance. Schrödinger’s wave equation, the significance of ψ and ψ2 . Quantum mechanical treatment of H- atom, Quantum numbers, and their significance. Normalized and orthogonal wave functions. Sign of wave functions. Radial and angular wave functions for hydrogen atom. Radial and angular distribution curves. Shapes of s ,  p , and  d o rbitals, Relative energies of orbitals. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, Hund’s rule of maximum spin multiplicity, Aufbau principle, and its limitations.

Periodicity of Elements:  Brief discussion of the following properties of the elements, with reference to  s-   &  p -block and the trends shown: (a) Effective nuclear charge, shielding or screening effect, Slater rules, variation of effective nuclear charge in periodic table. (b) Atomic and ionic radii (c) Ionization enthalpy, Successive ionization enthalpies, and factors affecting ionization enthalpy and trends in groups and periods. (d) Electron gain enthalpy and trends in groups and periods. (e) Electronegativity, Pauling’s/ Allred Rochow’s scales. Variation of electronegativity with bond order, partial charge, hybridization, group electronegativity.

Ionic bond:  General characteristics, types of ions, size effects, radius ratio rule and its limitations. Packing of ions in crystals. Born-Landé equation with derivation and importance of Kapustinskii expression for lattice energy. Madelung constant, Born-Haber cycle and its application, Solvation energy. Covalent character in ionic compounds, polarizing power and polarizability. Fajan’s rules and consequences of polarization.

Covalent bond : Valence Bond theory ( Heitler-London  approach). Energetics of hybridization, equivalent and non-equivalent hybrid orbitals. Bent’s rule, Resonance and resonance energy. Ionic character in covalent compounds: Bond moment and dipole moment. Percentage ionic character from dipole moment and electronegativity difference. Molecular orbital theory. Molecular orbital diagrams of diatomic and simple polyatomic molecules N2, O2, C2, B2, F2, CO, NO, and their ions; HCl (idea of s-p mixing and orbital interaction to be given).

VSEPR Theory : Lewis structure, Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR), shapes of the following simple molecules and ions containing lone pairs and bond pairs of electrons: H2O, NH3, PCl3, PCl5, SF6, ClF3, I3- , BrF2+ , PCl6- ,ICl2- ICl4- , and SO4 2-.

Metallic Bond:  Qualitative idea of valence bond and band theories. Semiconductors and insulators, defects in solids.

Weak Chemical Forces: v an der Waals forces, ion-dipole forces, dipole-dipole interactions, induced dipole interaction, Hydrogen bonding (theories of hydrogen bonding, valence bond treatment). Effects of weak chemical forces, melting and boiling points, solubility, energetics of dissolution process.

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Software Engineering Projects with Source & Documentation

You will always find the updated list of top and best free Software Engineering projects with source code in an easy and quick way. Our Free Software Engineering projects list has projects for beginners, intermediates as well as experts to learn in 2023.

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IGNOU BSc Assignment 2024 (January & July)

IGNOU BSc Assignments 2024 - IGNOU BSc Assignment Question Paper has been uploaded by the university for its current session 2024. The students of the BSc program can now download the Assignment Questions from this page. Candidates have to compulsory download and submit these assignments with the solutions to the university to get permission for attending the Term End Exam of the IGNOU BSc Program.

We also inform all BSc students that the assignment questions for each of the courses of the IGNOU BSc program are available for download from here. You have to prepare each of BSc assignment separately so that IGNOU Evaluators can easily understand and identify the course code of each subject.

• IGNOU BSc Syllabus
• IGNOU BSc Study Material

List of IGNOU BSc Assignment 2024

• Download IGNOU BSc Assignments 2024

Each of the Assignment questions will have different marks and the same will be printed on each question. Candidates should write the solutions to all questions according to the instructions given in the IGNOU BSc Assignment Question Paper . The BSc students have to submit the Assignments for each course to IGNOU Study Centre in which they get registered. The candidates have to submit it before the due date to appear in Term End Exam conducted by IGNOU.

IGNOU BSc Assignment Submission Last Date for 2024

Here is the Last Date for Submission of the IGNOU BSc Assignment to appear in the Upcoming Term End Exam June 2024 or December 2024 .

Where to Submit IGNOU BSc Assignments?

If you have completely solved your assignment then you have to submit your IGNOU BSc Assignments to the coordinator of the study centre which is allotted to you at the time of admission. Don’t forget to get a receipt for the submission of BSc Assignments.

After preparing the solution for your BSc Assignment, you have to submit IGNOU Assignments to the coordinator of the study centre which was allotted to you at the time of taking admission. Moreover, Don't forget to get a receipt for the submission of BSc Assignments.

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104 thoughts on “IGNOU BSc Assignment 2024 (January & July)”

Any reference for assignment MTE 01 2 4 5 6

please inform if anyone is having solved PHE 09 (2019) assignment

Respected, I took admission in July 2019 Enrollment no. 197602950 and I’ve to submit my assignment in March so for that I’ll solve the question paper with validity date of December 19 or other assignment question paper will uploaded for us with validity date of December 2020

please upload the PHE8L assignment because it is not uploaded on the website and also BSHF101 also not uploaded

koi bataiga Anthropology Honours Paper …BANC-101,102,103,104….KAHAN MILEGA…ASSIGNMENT AND PREVIOUS PAPER..

Hello Plz koi btaye lse4L , Lse8L , and Phe8l ka assignment banta bhi Hain ya nhi??

nhi banta hai jitne bhi lab courses h unka assignment submit nhi hota

Sir i need your help please mujhe btao bscbch ka assignment exams kab hai maine june2020mai forms bhare the

Woh laboratory subject hai uska nhi hoga. Only theory subject ka assignment submit krna hoga.

आप को assignment mile h kya

BSCG assignment 2021 nhi mila hai.

Kya kisi ko pta h ki agr maine BSCG me july 2019 me admissn liya h aur is saal mujhe 1st year ka assignment submit krna h aur exam dena h bt agr main 2nd year ka bhi isi saal assignment submit kru to kis saal ka paper solve krna hoga???kuki 2nd year to 2020-2021 ka part h to paper 2019-2020 solve kru ya 2021-2022???

Bsc m kitne assignment bnane hai total

BSCG ka assignment ko kis pate per online bhejna hoga.mera study centre hai T.P.S.College Patna.568.

Please koe mere ko September 2021 ka assignment pdf send kre

Kaun sa topic mila hai apko

plz help me mene october mai ignou bscg mai admission liya i have no study material and no syllabus in fact i have no idea how i have to have test or exams in this course or how i have to submit assignment

i also registered in november. kya tumhe kuch pata chala schedule ke baare me?

Mera bhi same h kuch nahi pata isi July 2021 me admission lia bsc general me

Hello, Pooja Sharma enrollment no. 2005646759 m current session me hu mujhe pta nhi assignment kaise banane h or all subject bnanana h are koi btao

I also want PHE8 and CHE8 and CHE7

I didnt get the BSHF 101 assignment for june 2021

Solve assignment CHE-05 for year of 2021

Please koi batayie ki BHDA 101, BHDF101, BRPA 101, FHD 2 Ka assignment banta hai .

Sir bsc 1st year assignment ke answer

Sir/Madam, please provided 2021 solved assignment CHE-4,PHE-7, MTE-4,PHE-102,PHE-09

I Shiv kumar dwivedi my enrollment no is 171571119 and i am student of b come 3rd year in study center satna and regional center jabalpur m.p. I have not received AHE-01 Book in our study material and my exam cycle is january to december 2021. Assignment submission date is 30 september 21 and i call and email many time to mpdd site in ignou. how can i submit our assignment .

Sir mene admission july2020 ko liya tha ab me second year me hoon to muje konsi date ko assignment submit krna h 15th may Or 30th april

Mam i have a doubt i took admission in july 2022 in bscg whats my last date to submit assignments.

Where is AHE-01 assignments?

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BSc 1st Year Physics Notes PDF: Free Download Here (2024)

Are you looking for BSc Physics notes? Well if so, you are in the right place. In this post, we are going to share the download links to BSc 1st year physics notes in pdf format.

In the past few months, hundreds of BSc 1st year students have requested study material (notes & question bank ) in Physics. As a result, we are here with complete handwritten notes.

In our last few posts, we have also shared question banks & notes for chemistry 1st-year students.

BSc 1st Year Physics Notes: General Info & Download Links

Let us first share a little about the course/subject and then we will move to the study material downloading process.

About BSc Physics

BSc (Bachelors in Science) is an undergraduate 3-year degree program that is designed for 10+2 students who are interested in the Science stream.

It consists of the major subjects including: Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Zoology, Botany, Computer Science, Biology, Biochemistry, EVS & Electronics.

Students can either opt for honors in specific subjects or for the plane course (where he/she will have to choose 3 subjects. e.g. BSc with PCM or BSc with ZBC).

Well, I think it’s enough about the course. Let’s discuss the syllabus of BSc 1st year Physics.

BSc 1st Year Physics Syllabus

Syllabus of degree 1st-year physics consists of the following books:

• Mechanics & General Properties of Matter
• Electricity & Magnetism
• Theory of Oscillations, Waves & Acoustics

For students with semester system the syllabus is as:

This is not the complete syllabus of physics. It just comprises of BSc books that you will have in your course. However, the complete syllabus of physics for BSc students is also available on our website.

As we don’t know which system your university follows (i.e. Semester system or Yearly Examination System), so the study material we have provided here consists of notes for both the 1st & 2nd semester. We’ve provided download links for notes of each chapter below.

Download Links: BSc 1st Year Physics Notes

Below are the download links of notes in pdf format for all chapters.

All you have to do is to simply click on the “Download Here” link after each subject and download the study material.

Book 1: Mechanics & General Properties of Matter

Book 2: Electricity & Magnetism

Book 3: Theory of Oscillations, Waves & Acoustics

Along with these notes, you should also practice important questions & numerical problems in physics.

How to Download?

Downloading BSc 1st year Physics notes is quick & easy. All you have to do is to follow the below steps:

Step 1: Click here to go to the download links.

Step 2: Click on the download links beside each subject & the pdf file will be downloaded in your system.

Step 3: For opening these pdf files, you should have proper application installed on your system. We recommend installing Adobe PDF reader on all your devices.

FAQ: I can’t download the pdf files using the download links? What to do?

Ans: If you are not able to download the study material, then these might be the issues:

• The speed of the Internet is too slow in your device.
• You might be using some adblocker which might be causing this.
• Data Saving mode is on in your browser.

If even after doing all this, you are still not able to download the pdf files. Simply reach out to us by either sending a message on WhatsApp or leaving an email at [email protected] .

Final Words

In this post, we have shared complete information regarding how to download BSc 1st year physics notes. If you face any difficulty during the download process, simply leave a comment below so that we can look after it.

Do you know? You can also download IGNOU study material for any subject for absolutely free (without being a student)

You are also welcome to write suggestions, ways of improvement & future recommendations in the comment box. If you like the post, appreciate our efforts by sharing it with your friends.

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BSc1Year Atomic Structure

Atomic structure, atomic structure in chemistry, philosopher scientists and their ideas about matter & atom, 1. democritus,  2.  aristotle, 3. john dalton.

• In the nineteenth century John Dalton (1766–1844), marks the beginning of the progress of modern atomic theory.
• John Dalton challenges the Aristotelian theory. Dalton revived and revised Democritus’s ideas based on the results of scientific research he conducted.
• The ideas of Democritus’s and Dalton’s were similar. Dalton carried out a number of experiments that allowed him to refine and support his hypotheses.
• Dalton carried out numerous chemicals reactions where he was able to determine the mass ratios of different elements involves in the chemical reactions.
• The outcomes of his research are known as  Dalton’s atomic theory,  which he proposed in 1803.
• Based on  Dalton’s atomic theory , John Dalton calculated the  first relative weights of atoms.
• He assessed the atomic weights of some elements according to the mass ratios in which they combined; with the hydrogen atom taken as unity.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

• Matter consists of atoms, which cannot be divided into simpler element. Therefore atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
• Atoms of one element  cannot  be transformed into other atoms of an element. In chemical reactions, the atoms of an element can combine with same or other atoms of an element to form new substances.
• Atoms of an element have mass, physical and chemical properties and are different from atoms of any other element.
• Compounds are formed from a chemical reaction of a specific ratio of atoms of different elements.

How the Theory Explains the Mass Laws

Mass conservation, definite composition, multiple proportions, nuclear atom model.

• In 1855, Sir William Crookes carried out a series on experiment to investigate the behavior of heated metals in a vacuum. The experiments showed that a heated cathode produced radiation, which could make substances to emit light.
• The radiation emitted from the cathode is called cathode rays.
• According to some research, it was known that cathode rays could be deflected by a magnetic field and electric field, and they carried a negative charge (the cathode is the negatively charged electrode and because the beam originated from the cathode, it must therefore be negatively charged).
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The cathode-ray tube

• In 1897, Joseph J. Thomson demonstrated that both the beam and the charged particles could be bent by an electrical field is applied perpendicular to the path of the beam, as shown in  Figure 5 .
• Thomson used the  cathode-ray tube  to show the deflection of electron by an applied electric field.
• When the cathode is heated, cathode rays is produced which travel along the tube and hit the phosphor-coated end of the tube and emit a glowing spot of light  (Figure 5).
• The rays produced at the negative electrode (cathode) and moved to the positive electrode (anode).
• It was concluded that cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles found in all matter.
• By varying the electric field strength and measuring the angle of deflection, Thomson was able to determine the charge-to-mass ( e / m ) ratio of the particles, which are known as  electrons .
• Thomson measured the  e / m  ratio as −1.76 × 108 C/g.
• According to Thomson, the  e / m  ratio is larger than the one expected compared to the atomic weights of the lightest of atoms. Therefore this indicates that the negatively charged electrons must be much smaller in size than a typical atom.
• As a result of his experiment, Thomson proposed the plum pudding model of the atom, where the atom consisted of one or more of these tiny electrons distributed in a sea of positive charge.

Millikan’s oil-drop experiment for measuring an electron’s charge

Mass and charge of the electron.

• In 1897, the British physicist J. J. Thomson (1856–1940) measured the ratio of the mass of a cathode ray particle to its charge.
• By comparing this value with the mass/charge ratio for the lightest charged particle in solution, he estimated that the cathode ray particle weighed less than  as much as hydrogen , the lightest atom.
• In 1909, the American researcher Robert Millikan designed an experiment that measured the charge on the electron.
• He did so by observing the movement of oil droplets in an apparatus that contained electrically charged plates and an x-ray source as shown in  Figure 6 .

• This experiment also enabled the calculation of the mass of the electron based from its mass: charge ration obtained from J.J Thomson experiment.
• Millikan measured the charge on a great number of tiny oil drops which had been charged.
• An x-ray radiation is used to remove electrons from the gas molecules present in the chamber.
• The oil drops pick up the electrons present in the chamber, making them to become negatively charged.
• A small number of the oil drops sprayed into the box above the positively charged plate pass through the hole.
• When there is no electric field between the plates, the drops fall slowly with a steady velocity.
• An individual drop carrying a charge may be brought to rest by applying a voltage across the plates so that its weight ( acting downwards) is exactly balanced by the electrostatic force in it ( acting upwards).
• Millikan varies the voltage so that the oil droplet suspend in the air.
• Then he measured it total charge, by measuring the voltage needed to bring the drop to rest and the rate at which it falls when there is no voltage between the plates.
• Millikan was able to determine that each of the charged particles was some integral multiple of the electronic charge, which he determined to be −1.592 × 10−19 C, a measurement that is fairly close to the modern value for the charge on an electron (−1.60217733 × 10−19 C).
• As a drop could only pick up only whole number of electrons, this indicated that the charge on an individual electron must be -1.6 x 10-19.
• Therefore the value of electron’s charge is -1.602×10-19 C (C stands for coulomb, the SI unit of charge).
• Therefore the mass of the electron  m e  could be calculated using the electron’s mass; charge ration and the value for the electron’s charge.

The plum pudding model

• Thomson proposed the plum pudding model of the atom, where the atom consisted of one or more of these tiny electrons distributed in a sea of positive charge.
• Thomson thought that the positive charge necessary to counterbalance the negative charges of electrons in a neutral atom was in the form of a cloud.
• According to this model, an atom is spherical in shape and it consist of positive and negative charges equally distributed as shown in  Figure 7 .

• In 1911, Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) began to study how positively charged alpha particles interacted with solid matter.
• Rutherford carried out an experiment using a thin gold metal sheet to see if alpha particles would be deflected as they passed through the sheet.

Rutherford’s experiment

• The Rutherford’s gold fold experiment consists of a source of alpha particles, a thin gold sheet and a fluorescent screen. The screen consists of a phosphorescent coating of zinc-sulphide on its interior surface. The screen is circular in shape. The metal foil was mounted at the centre of the apparatus as shown in  Figure 10 .
• When an energetic alpha particle struck the phosphorescent screen, a flash of light would be observed. By noting where the flashes occurred, the scientists could determine if the atoms in the gold foil deflected the alpha particles.
• Based on the plum pudding model, where the electrons were evenly dispersed in a sphere of positive charge, Rutherford expected that the heavier alpha particles should be able to pass through the atom with little or no deflections
• The diagram below ( Figure 8 )shows the results Rutherford expected from the experiment.

Rutherford’s model of the atom

• Rutherford demonstrated that the plum pudding model proposed by Thomson was false. 
• Based on some calculations, they showed that the diameter of the nucleus was about five orders of magnitude smaller than that of the atom.
• Using this model, Rutherford showed that the nucleus of an atom is of the order of 10 -14  m across compared with the size of an atom which is of the order of 10 -10  m.
• The large angles of scattering for a very small number of particles led Rutherford to propose that the majority of the mass of the atom was concentrated in a minute positively charged region, around which the electrons in the atom circulated.
• When an alpha particle came very close to the nucleus, Rutherford reasoned, the electrostatic repulsion between the two would be sufficient to repel the alpha particle and so produce the large angle of scattering.
• Since the nucleus was small, this scattering would occur for only the few particles which approached the nucleus sufficiently closely.
• Rutherford’s nuclear atomic model is shown in the  Figure 10.

Rutherford’s model of the atom conclusion

• Therefore they concluded that matter is mostly empty space, with the very lightweight electrons orbiting around an incredibly dense and positively charged nucleus.
• He also concluded that almost all of the positive charges were contained in a tiny, dense region in the centre of the atom, which he called the  nucleus.
• The negatively charged electrons are held within the atom by their attraction to the positively charged nucleus.

Summary of Rutherford’s experiment

The proton and the neutron.

• By 1920, Rutherford had refined the concept of the nucleus and concluded that the nucleus contained positively charged particles called protons.
• A  proton  is a subatomic particle carrying a charge of 1+.
• In 1932, James Chadwick (1891–1974), showed that the nucleus also contained another subatomic neutral particle, called the neutron.
• A  neutron  is a subatomic particle that has a mass nearly equal to that of a proton, but it carries no electric charge.
• Chadwick’s experiment consists of bombarding a beryllium plate with alpha particle. An uncharged radiation is produced on the opposite side of the sheet. Therefore, he used a solid material containing many hydrogen atoms (paraffin wax) in the path of this radiation caused protons to be knocked out of the wax. He showed that the unknown radiation must consist of uncharged particles with a mass similar to that of the proton.

The Atomic Theory

Structure of the atom.

• An  atom  is an electrically neutral, spherical entity composed of a positively charged central nucleus surrounded by one or more negatively charged electrons.
• All atoms are made up of the three fundamental subatomic particles—the electron, the proton, and the neutron.
• The electrons move rapidly within the available volume, held there by the attraction of the positively charged nucleus.
• An atom’s diameter (≈1×10 -10  m) is about 20,000 times the diameter of its nucleus (≈5×10 -15  m).
• The nucleus, which is composed of neutral neutrons and positively charged protons, contains all of an atom’s positive charge and more than 99.97% of its mass.

• An atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons  (the only exception is the simplest hydrogen nucleus, which is a single proton).
• The  proton (p + )  has a positive charge, and the  neutron (n 0 )  has no charge; thus, the positive charge of the nucleus results from its protons.
• The  magnitudes  of the charges possessed by a proton and by an  electron (e – )  are equal, but the  signs  of the charges are opposite.
• Since an atom is electrically neutral, the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom must be exactly equal to the number of electrons.
• The proton number of an atom is also known as the  atomic number  Z . This represents the number of protons in the nucleus.
• All carbon atoms ( Z= 6) have 6 protons, all oxygen atoms ( Z= 8) have 8 protons, and all uranium atoms ( Z= 92) have 92 protons. There are currently 117 known elements, of which 90 occur in nature and 27 have been synthesized by nuclear scientists.

Atomic number

• The  mass number (or nucleon number)  A  is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
• Thus, a carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its nucleus has a mass number of 12, and a uranium atom with 92 protons and 146 neutrons in its nucleus has a mass number of 238.

Mass number

• An atom with  Z  protons and  N  neutrons in represented as shown in  Figure 13.  The  atomic symbol  X  is based on the element Latin, Greek or English name.
• For example,  C  for carbon,  S  for sulfur, and  Na  for sodium (Latin  natrium ). Often written with the symbol are the atomic number ( Z ) as a left  sub script and the mass number ( A ) as a left  super script.

• Since the mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons, the number of neutrons ( N ) equals the mass number minus the atomic number:
• Isotopes are atoms with the same proton number but different nucleon numbers. They have the same electron arrangement and , therefore, the same chemical properties
• For example, all carbon atoms ( Z =6) have 6 protons and 6 electrons, but only 98.89% of naturally occurring carbon atoms have 6 neutrons ( A= 12). A small percentage (1.11%) have 7 neutrons ( A= 13), and even fewer (less than 0.01%) have 8 ( A= 14). These are carbon’s three naturally occurring isotopes:  12 C, 13 C, and  14 C.
• The chemical properties of an element are primarily determined by the number of electrons, so  all isotopes of an element have nearly identical chemical behaviour,  even though they have different masses.

Calculation of the atomic mass of chlorine

• To calculate the weighted average atomic mass of chlorine, you first need to calculate the mass contribution of each isotope.

Atomic Masses of the Elements

• The mass of an atom is measured  relative  to the mass of an atomic standard. The modern standard is the carbon-12 atom, whose mass is defined as  exactly  12 atomic mass units. Thus, the  atomic mass unit (amu)  is 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
• Based on this standard, the  1 H atom has a mass of 1.008 amu; in other words, a  12 C atom has almost 12 times the mass of an  1 H atom.
• The other unit for atomic mass is  dalton (Da). Therefore one  12 C atom has a mass of 12 daltons (12 Da, or 12 amu).
• The atomic mass unit is a unit of relative mass, but it has an absolute mass of 1.66054×10 -24  g.

Masses of Subatomic Particles

Mass spectrometry.

How the Mass Spectrometer Works

Unstable Nuclei and Radioactive Decay

Radioactivity, nuclear reactions.

• Substances that emitted radiation spontaneously in a process is called  radioactivity.
• Radiation s are rays and particles emitted by the radioactive material.
• A nuclear reaction  involves a change in the nuclide.
• A nuclear reaction results in the formation of new kinds of atoms.
• Radioactive atoms produce radiation because their nuclei are unstable.

Radioactive decay

• Unstable nuclei disintegrate (break up) and lose energy by emitting radiation such as alpha, beta or gamma radiation. The disintegrated is  radioactive decay.
• Unstable atoms disintegrate to form stable atoms, often of a different element.

Types of Radiation

• There are three different types of radiation based on their electric charge.
• An experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of electric fields and magnetic on radiation.
• By directing radiation from a radioactive source between two electrically charged plates, As shown in the  Figure 17,  radiation were deflected toward the negative plate, the positive plate, or not at all.

Alpha radiation

• Alpha particles having a positive charge deflected toward the negatively charged plate were named  alpha radiation.
• An  alpha particle  contains two protons and two neutrons, and thus has a 2+ charge, which explains why alpha particles are attracted to the negatively charged plate as shown in  Figure 17.
• An alpha particle is equivalent to a helium-4 nucleus and is represented by  α .
• The alpha decay of radioactive radium-226 into radon-222 is shown below.

• The new element, radon (Rn), is created as a result of the alpha decay of the unstable radium-226 nucleus.
• The type of equation shown above is known as a  nuclear equation.  It shows the atomic numbers and mass numbers of the particles involved. The mass number is conserved in nuclear equations.

Beta radiation

• Beta particles having a negative charge deflected toward the positively charged plate were named beta radiation as shown in Figure 17.
• This radiation consists of fast-moving beta particles.
• Beta particle  is an electron with a 1- charge and it represented by the symbol β or e –  .
• An example of beta decay of carbon-14 into nitrogen-14 is shown below.

Gamma radiation

• Gamma rays are undeflected since they are electromagnetic and it possessed a high-energy radiation.
•  Gamma rays have no mass and are denoted by the symbol  γ .
• Gamma ray are neutral, gamma rays are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.
• They usually accompany alpha and beta radiation, and they account for most of the energy lost during radioactive decays.
• An example gamma rays is shown below:

• Gamma rays are mass less; the emission of gamma rays by themselves cannot result in the formation of a new atom.

Nuclear Stability  – Atomic Structure Notes

• The primary factor in determining an atom’s stability is its ratio of neutrons to protons. Atoms that contain either too many or too few neutrons are unstable and lose energy through radioactive decay to form a stable nucleus.
• They emit alpha and beta particles and these emissions affect the neutron-to-proton ratio of the newly created nucleus.
• Radioactive atoms undergo enough radioactive decay to form stable, non-radioactive atoms.

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BSc 1st Year Geology- Full Course & Notes

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