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APA Abstract (2020) | Formatting, Length, and Keywords

Published on November 6, 2020 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on January 17, 2024.

An APA abstract is a comprehensive summary of your paper in which you briefly address the research problem , hypotheses , methods , results , and implications of your research. It’s placed on a separate page right after the title page and is usually no longer than 250 words.

Most professional papers that are submitted for publication require an abstract. Student papers typically don’t need an abstract, unless instructed otherwise.

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Table of contents

How to format the abstract, how to write an apa abstract, which keywords to use, frequently asked questions, apa abstract example.

APA abstract (7th edition)

Formatting instructions

Follow these five steps to format your abstract in APA Style:

  • Insert a running head (for a professional paper—not needed for a student paper) and page number.
  • Set page margins to 1 inch (2.54 cm).
  • Write “Abstract” (bold and centered) at the top of the page.
  • Do not indent the first line.
  • Double-space the text.
  • Use a legible font like Times New Roman (12 pt.).
  • Limit the length to 250 words.
  • Indent the first line 0.5 inches.
  • Write the label “Keywords:” (italicized).
  • Write keywords in lowercase letters.
  • Separate keywords with commas.
  • Do not use a period after the keywords.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

The abstract is a self-contained piece of text that informs the reader what your research is about. It’s best to write the abstract after you’re finished with the rest of your paper.

The questions below may help structure your abstract. Try answering them in one to three sentences each.

  • What is the problem? Outline the objective, research questions , and/or hypotheses .
  • What has been done? Explain your research methods .
  • What did you discover? Summarize the key findings and conclusions .
  • What do the findings mean? Summarize the discussion and recommendations .

Check out our guide on how to write an abstract for more guidance and an annotated example.

Guide: writing an abstract

At the end of the abstract, you may include a few keywords that will be used for indexing if your paper is published on a database. Listing your keywords will help other researchers find your work.

Choosing relevant keywords is essential. Try to identify keywords that address your topic, method, or population. APA recommends including three to five keywords.

An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

  • To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
  • To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of your paper.

An APA abstract is around 150–250 words long. However, always check your target journal’s guidelines and don’t exceed the specified word count.

In an APA Style paper , the abstract is placed on a separate page after the title page (page 2).

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

  • The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
  • The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

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Streefkerk, R. (2024, January 17). APA Abstract (2020) | Formatting, Length, and Keywords. Scribbr. Retrieved February 19, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/apa-abstract/

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what is abstract on a research paper

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What Exactly is an Abstract, and How Do I Write One?

An abstract is a short summary of your completed research. It is intended to describe your work without going into great detail. Abstracts should be self-contained and concise, explaining your work as briefly and clearly as possible. Different disciplines call for slightly different approaches to abstracts, as will be illustrated by the examples below, so it would be wise to study some abstracts from your own field before you begin to write one.

General Considerations

Probably the most important function of an abstract is to help a reader decide if he or she is interested in reading your entire publication. For instance, imagine that you’re an undergraduate student sitting in the library late on a Friday night. You’re tired, bored, and sick of looking up articles about the history of celery. The last thing you want to do is reading an entire article only to discover it contributes nothing to your argument. A good abstract can solve this problem by indicating to the reader if the work is likely to be meaningful to his or her particular research project. Additionally, abstracts are used to help libraries catalogue publications based on the keywords that appear in them.

An effective abstract will contain several key features:

  • Motivation/problem statement: Why is your research/argument important? What practical, scientific, theoretical or artistic gap is your project filling?
  • Methods/procedure/approach: What did you actually do to get your results? (e.g. analyzed 3 novels, completed a series of 5 oil paintings, interviewed 17 students)
  • Results/findings/product: As a result of completing the above procedure, what did you learn/invent/create?
  • Conclusion/implications: What are the larger implications of your findings, especially for the problem/gap identified previously? Why is this research valuable?

In Practice

Let’s take a look at some sample abstracts, and see where these components show up. To give you an idea of how the author meets these “requirements” of abstract writing, the various features have been color-coded to correspond with the numbers listed above. The general format of an abstract is largely predictable, with some discipline-based differences. One type of abstract not discussed here is the “Descriptive Abstract,” which only summarizes and explains existing research, rather than informing the reader of a new perspective. As you can imagine, such an abstract would omit certain components of our four-colored model.

SAMPLE ABSTRACTS

ABSTRACT #1: History / Social Science

"Their War": The Perspective of the South Vietnamese Military in Their Own Words Author: Julie Pham

Despite the vast research by Americans on the Vietnam War, little is known about the perspective of South Vietnamese military, officially called the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces (RVNAF). The overall image that emerges from the literature is negative: lazy, corrupt, unpatriotic, apathetic soldiers with poor fighting spirits. This study recovers some of the South Vietnamese military perspective for an American audience through qualititative interviews with 40 RVNAF veterans now living in San José, Sacramento, and Seattle, home to three of the top five largest Vietnamese American communities in the nation. An analysis of these interviews yields the veterans' own explanations that complicate and sometimes even challenge three widely held assumptions about the South Vietnamese military: 1) the RVNAF was rife with corruption at the top ranks, hurting the morale of the lower ranks; 2) racial relations between the South Vietnamese military and the Americans were tense and hostile; and 3) the RVNAF was apathetic in defending South Vietnam from communism. The stories add nuance to our understanding of who the South Vietnamese were in the Vietnam War. This study is part of a growing body of research on non-American perspectives of the war. In using a largely untapped source of Vietnamese history—oral histories with Vietnamese immigrants—this project will contribute to future research on similar topics.

That was a fairly basic abstract that allows us to examine its individual parts more thoroughly.

Motivation/problem statement: The author identifies that previous research has been done about the Vietnam War, but that it has failed to address the specific topic of South Vietnam’s military. This is good because it shows how the author’s research fits into the bigger picture. It isn’t a bad thing to be critical of other research, but be respectful from an academic standpoint (i.e. “Previous researchers are stupid and don’t know what they’re talking about” sounds kind of unprofessional).

Methods/procedure/approach: The author does a good job of explaining how she performed her research, without giving unnecessary detail. Noting that she conducted qualitative interviews with 40 subjects is significant, but she wisely does not explicitly state the kinds of questions asked during the interview, which would be excessive.

Results/findings/product: The results make good use of numbering to clearly indicate what was ascertained from the research—particularly useful, as people often just scan abstracts for the results of an experiment.

Conclusion/implications: Since this paper is historical in nature, its findings may be hard to extrapolate to modern-day phenomena, but the author identifies the importance of her work as part of a growing body of research, which merits further investigation. This strategy functions to encourage future research on the topic.

ABSTRACT #2: Natural Science “A Lysimeter Study of Grass Cover and Water Table Depth Effects on Pesticide Residues in Drainage Water” Authors: A. Liaghat, S.O. Prasher

A study was undertaken to investigate the effect of soil and grass cover, when integrated with water table management (subsurface drainage and controlled drainage), in reducing herbicide residues in agricultural drainage water. Twelve PVC lysimeters, 1 m long and 450 mm diameter, were packed with a sandy soil and used to study the following four treatments: subsurface drainage, controlled drainage, grass (sod) cover, and bare soil. Contaminated water containing atrazine, metolachlor, and metribuzin residues was applied to the lysimeters and samples of drain effluent were collected. Significant reductions in pesticide concentrations were found in all treatments. In the first year, herbicide levels were reduced significantly (1% level), from an average of 250 mg/L to less than 10 mg/L . In the second year, polluted water of 50 mg/L, which is considered more realistic and reasonable in natural drainage waters, was applied to the lysimeters and herbicide residues in the drainage waters were reduced to less than 1 mg/L. The subsurface drainage lysimeters covered with grass proved to be the most effective treatment system.

Motivation/problem statement: Once again, we see that the problem—more like subject of study —is stated first in the abstract. This is normal for abstracts, in that you want to include the most important information first. The results may seem like the most important part of the abstract, but without mentioning the subject, the results won’t make much sense to readers. Notice that the abstract makes no references to other research, which is fine. It is not obligatory to cite other publications in an abstract, and in fact, doing so might distract your reader from YOUR experiment. Either way, it is likely that other sources will surface in your paper’s discussion/conclusion.

Methods/procedure/approach: Notice that the authors include pertinent numbers and figures in describing their methods. An extended description of the methods would probably include a long list of numerical values and conditions for each experimental trial, so it is important to include only the most important values in your abstract—ones that might make your study unique. Additionally, we see that a methodological description appears in two different parts of the abstract. This is fine. It may work better to explain your experiment by more closely connecting each method to its result. One last point: the author doesn’t take time to define—or give any background information about—“atrazine,” “metalachlor,” “lysimeter,” or “metribuzin.” This may be because other ecologists know what these are, but even if that’s not the case, you shouldn’t take time to define terms in your abstract.

Results/findings/product: Similar to the methods component of the abstract, you want to condense your findings to include only the major result of the experiment. Again, this study focused on two major trials, so both trials and both major results are listed. A particularly important word to consider when sharing results in an abstract is “significant.” In statistics, “significant” means roughly that your results were not due to chance. In your paper, your results may be hundreds of words long, and involve dozens of tables and graphs, but ultimately, your reader only wants to know: “What was the main result, and was that result significant?” So, try to answer both these questions in the abstract.

Conclusion/implications: This abstract’s conclusion sounds more like a result: “…lysimeters covered with grass were found to be the most effective treatment system.” This may seem incomplete, since it does not explain how this system could/should/would be applied to other situations, but that’s okay. There is plenty of space for addressing those issues in the body of the paper.

ABSTRACT #3: Philosophy / Literature [Note: Many papers don’t precisely follow the previous format, since they do not involve an experiment and its methods. Nonetheless, they typically rely on a similar structure.]

“Participatory Legitimation: A Reply to Arash Abizadeh” Author: Eric Schmidt, Louisiana State University, 2011

Arash Abizadeh’s argument against unilateral border control relies on his unbounded demos thesis, which is supported negatively by arguing that the ‘bounded demos thesis’ is incoherent. The incoherency arises for two reasons: (1) Democratic principles cannot be brought to bear on matters (border control) logically prior to the constitution of a group, and (2), the civic definition of citizens and non-citizens creates an ‘externality problem’ because the act of definition is an exercise of coercive power over all persons. The bounded demos thesis is rejected because the “will of the people” fails to legitimate democratic political order because there can be no pre-political political will of the people. However, I argue that “the will of the people” can be made manifest under a robust understanding of participatory legitimation, which exists concurrently with the political state, and thus defines both its borders and citizens as bounded , rescuing the bounded demos thesis and compromising the rest of Abizadeh’s article.

This paper may not make any sense to someone not studying philosophy, or not having read the text being critiqued. However, we can still see where the author separates the different components of the abstract, even if we don’t understand the terminology used.

Motivation/problem statement: The problem is not really a problem, but rather another person’s belief on a subject matter. For that reason, the author takes time to carefully explain the exact theory that he will be arguing against.

Methods/procedure/approach: [Note that there is no traditional “Methods” component of this abstract.] Reviews like this are purely critical and don’t necessarily involve performing experiments as in the other abstracts we have seen. Still, a paper like this may incorporate ideas from other sources, much like our traditional definition of experimental research.

Results/findings/product: In a paper like this, the “findings” tend to resemble what you have concluded about something, which will largely be based on your own opinion, supported by various examples. For that reason, the finding of this paper is: “The ‘will of the people,’ actually corresponds to a ‘bounded demos thesis.’” Even though we aren’t sure what the terms mean, we can plainly see that the finding (argument) is in support of “bounded,” rather than “unbounded.”

Conclusion/implications: If our finding is that “bounded” is correct, then what should we conclude? [In this case, the conclusion is simply that the initial author, A.A., is wrong.] Some critical papers attempt to broaden the conclusion to show something outside the scope of the paper. For example, if A.A. believes his “unbounded demos thesis” to be correct (when he is actually mistaken), what does this say about him? About his philosophy? About society as a whole? Maybe people who agree with him are more likely to vote Democrat, more likely to approve of certain immigration policies, more likely to own Labrador retrievers as pets, etc.

Applying These Skills

Now that you know the general layout of an abstract, here are some tips to keep in mind as you write your own:

1. The abstract stands alone

  • An abstract shouldn’t be considered “part” of a paper—it should be able to stand independently and still tell the reader something significant.

2. Keep it short

  • A general rule of abstract length is 200-300 words, or about 1/10th of the entire paper.

3. Don’t add new information

  • If something doesn’t appear in your actual paper, then don’t put it in the abstract.

4. Be consistent with voice, tone, and style

  • Try to write the abstract in the same style as your paper (i.e. If you’re not using contractions in your paper, the do not use them in your abstract).

5. Be concise

  • Try to shorten your sentences as often as possible. If you can say something clearly in five words rather than ten, then do it.

6. Break up its components

  • If allowed, subdivide the components of your abstract with bolded headings for “Background,” “Methods,” etc.

7. The abstract should be part of your writing process

  • Consider writing your abstract after you finish your entire paper.
  • There’s nothing wrong with copying and pasting important sentences and phrases from your paper … provided that they’re your own words.
  • Write multiple drafts, and keep revising. An abstract is very important to your publication (or assignment) and should be treated as such.

"Abstracts." The Writing Center. The University of North Carolina, n.d. Web. 1 Jun 2011. http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/abstracts.html "Abstracts." The Writing Center. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, n.d. Web. 1 Jun 2011. http://www.rpi.edu/web/writingcenter/abstracts.html

Last updated August 2013

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An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

  • A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
  • Lengthy background or contextual information,
  • Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
  • Acronyms or abbreviations,
  • References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
  • Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
  • Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
  • Citations to other works, and
  • Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in hte Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

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The Writing Center • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

What this handout is about

This handout provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down into their component parts.

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage.

Why write an abstract?

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.

Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation:

This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil.

From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read.

Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work.

When do people write abstracts?

  • when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals
  • when applying for research grants
  • when writing a book proposal
  • when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis
  • when writing a proposal for a conference paper
  • when writing a proposal for a book chapter

Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.

Types of abstracts

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature review . If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article.

Descriptive abstracts

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.

Informative abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.

Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout on abstracts . Descriptive abstract:

The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.

Informative abstract:

Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.

Which type should I use?

Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.

How do I write an abstract?

The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:

  • Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
  • Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
  • Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
  • Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
  • Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

(This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )

All abstracts include:

  • A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
  • The most important information first.
  • The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language.
  • Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
  • Clear, concise, and powerful language.

Abstracts may include:

  • The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence.
  • Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature.
  • The same chronological structure as the original work.

How not to write an abstract:

  • Do not refer extensively to other works.
  • Do not add information not contained in the original work.
  • Do not define terms.

If you are abstracting your own writing

When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.

Reverse outlining:

This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see our short video . For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding .

For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement.

Cut and paste:

To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph.

If you are abstracting someone else’s writing

When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:

Identify key terms:

Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.

Highlight key phrases and sentences:

Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words.

Don’t look back:

After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.

Revise, revise, revise

No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. The Word Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length.

Example 1: Humanities abstract

Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.

What the dissertation does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so.

How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.

What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.

Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Keywords social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation

Example 2: Science Abstract

Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.

Why do this study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.

What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.

Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2009. Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press.

Koopman, Philip. 1997. “How to Write an Abstract.” Carnegie Mellon University. October 1997. http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html .

Lancaster, F.W. 2003. Indexing And Abstracting in Theory and Practice , 3rd ed. London: Facet Publishing.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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SciSpace Resources

Abstract Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide With Tips & Examples

Sumalatha G

Table of Contents

step-by-step-guide-to-abstract-writing

Introduction

Abstracts of research papers have always played an essential role in describing your research concisely and clearly to researchers and editors of journals, enticing them to continue reading. However, with the widespread availability of scientific databases, the need to write a convincing abstract is more crucial now than during the time of paper-bound manuscripts.

Abstracts serve to "sell" your research and can be compared with your "executive outline" of a resume or, rather, a formal summary of the critical aspects of your work. Also, it can be the "gist" of your study. Since most educational research is done online, it's a sign that you have a shorter time for impressing your readers, and have more competition from other abstracts that are available to be read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) articulates 12 issues or points considered during the final approval process for conferences & journals and emphasises the importance of writing an abstract that checks all these boxes (12 points). Since it's the only opportunity you have to captivate your readers, you must invest time and effort in creating an abstract that accurately reflects the critical points of your research.

With that in mind, let’s head over to understand and discover the core concept and guidelines to create a substantial abstract. Also, learn how to organise the ideas or plots into an effective abstract that will be awe-inspiring to the readers you want to reach.

What is Abstract? Definition and Overview

The word "Abstract' is derived from Latin abstractus meaning "drawn off." This etymological meaning also applies to art movements as well as music, like abstract expressionism. In this context, it refers to the revealing of the artist's intention.

Based on this, you can determine the meaning of an abstract: A condensed research summary. It must be self-contained and independent of the body of the research. However, it should outline the subject, the strategies used to study the problem, and the methods implemented to attain the outcomes. The specific elements of the study differ based on the area of study; however, together, it must be a succinct summary of the entire research paper.

Abstracts are typically written at the end of the paper, even though it serves as a prologue. In general, the abstract must be in a position to:

  • Describe the paper.
  • Identify the problem or the issue at hand.
  • Explain to the reader the research process, the results you came up with, and what conclusion you've reached using these results.
  • Include keywords to guide your strategy and the content.

Furthermore, the abstract you submit should not reflect upon any of  the following elements:

  • Examine, analyse or defend the paper or your opinion.
  • What you want to study, achieve or discover.
  • Be redundant or irrelevant.

After reading an abstract, your audience should understand the reason - what the research was about in the first place, what the study has revealed and how it can be utilised or can be used to benefit others. You can understand the importance of abstract by knowing the fact that the abstract is the most frequently read portion of any research paper. In simpler terms, it should contain all the main points of the research paper.

purpose-of-abstract-writing

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

Abstracts are typically an essential requirement for research papers; however, it's not an obligation to preserve traditional reasons without any purpose. Abstracts allow readers to scan the text to determine whether it is relevant to their research or studies. The abstract allows other researchers to decide if your research paper can provide them with some additional information. A good abstract paves the interest of the audience to pore through your entire paper to find the content or context they're searching for.

Abstract writing is essential for indexing, as well. The Digital Repository of academic papers makes use of abstracts to index the entire content of academic research papers. Like meta descriptions in the regular Google outcomes, abstracts must include keywords that help researchers locate what they seek.

Types of Abstract

Informative and Descriptive are two kinds of abstracts often used in scientific writing.

A descriptive abstract gives readers an outline of the author's main points in their study. The reader can determine if they want to stick to the research work, based on their interest in the topic. An abstract that is descriptive is similar to the contents table of books, however, the format of an abstract depicts complete sentences encapsulated in one paragraph. It is unfortunate that the abstract can't be used as a substitute for reading a piece of writing because it's just an overview, which omits readers from getting an entire view. Also, it cannot be a way to fill in the gaps the reader may have after reading this kind of abstract since it does not contain crucial information needed to evaluate the article.

To conclude, a descriptive abstract is:

  • A simple summary of the task, just summarises the work, but some researchers think it is much more of an outline
  • Typically, the length is approximately 100 words. It is too short when compared to an informative abstract.
  • A brief explanation but doesn't provide the reader with the complete information they need;
  • An overview that omits conclusions and results

An informative abstract is a comprehensive outline of the research. There are times when people rely on the abstract as an information source. And the reason is why it is crucial to provide entire data of particular research. A well-written, informative abstract could be a good substitute for the remainder of the paper on its own.

A well-written abstract typically follows a particular style. The author begins by providing the identifying information, backed by citations and other identifiers of the papers. Then, the major elements are summarised to make the reader aware of the study. It is followed by the methodology and all-important findings from the study. The conclusion then presents study results and ends the abstract with a comprehensive summary.

In a nutshell, an informative abstract:

  • Has a length that can vary, based on the subject, but is not longer than 300 words.
  • Contains all the content-like methods and intentions
  • Offers evidence and possible recommendations.

Informative Abstracts are more frequent than descriptive abstracts because of their extensive content and linkage to the topic specifically. You should select different types of abstracts to papers based on their length: informative abstracts for extended and more complex abstracts and descriptive ones for simpler and shorter research papers.

What are the Characteristics of a Good Abstract?

  • A good abstract clearly defines the goals and purposes of the study.
  • It should clearly describe the research methodology with a primary focus on data gathering, processing, and subsequent analysis.
  • A good abstract should provide specific research findings.
  • It presents the principal conclusions of the systematic study.
  • It should be concise, clear, and relevant to the field of study.
  • A well-designed abstract should be unifying and coherent.
  • It is easy to grasp and free of technical jargon.
  • It is written impartially and objectively.

the-various-sections-of-abstract-writing

What are the various sections of an ideal Abstract?

By now, you must have gained some concrete idea of the essential elements that your abstract needs to convey . Accordingly, the information is broken down into six key sections of the abstract, which include:

An Introduction or Background

Research methodology, objectives and goals, limitations.

Let's go over them in detail.

The introduction, also known as background, is the most concise part of your abstract. Ideally, it comprises a couple of sentences. Some researchers only write one sentence to introduce their abstract. The idea behind this is to guide readers through the key factors that led to your study.

It's understandable that this information might seem difficult to explain in a couple of sentences. For example, think about the following two questions like the background of your study:

  • What is currently available about the subject with respect to the paper being discussed?
  • What isn't understood about this issue? (This is the subject of your research)

While writing the abstract’s introduction, make sure that it is not lengthy. Because if it crosses the word limit, it may eat up the words meant to be used for providing other key information.

Research methodology is where you describe the theories and techniques you used in your research. It is recommended that you describe what you have done and the method you used to get your thorough investigation results. Certainly, it is the second-longest paragraph in the abstract.

In the research methodology section, it is essential to mention the kind of research you conducted; for instance, qualitative research or quantitative research (this will guide your research methodology too) . If you've conducted quantitative research, your abstract should contain information like the sample size, data collection method, sampling techniques, and duration of the study. Likewise, your abstract should reflect observational data, opinions, questionnaires (especially the non-numerical data) if you work on qualitative research.

The research objectives and goals speak about what you intend to accomplish with your research. The majority of research projects focus on the long-term effects of a project, and the goals focus on the immediate, short-term outcomes of the research. It is possible to summarise both in just multiple sentences.

In stating your objectives and goals, you give readers a picture of the scope of the study, its depth and the direction your research ultimately follows. Your readers can evaluate the results of your research against the goals and stated objectives to determine if you have achieved the goal of your research.

In the end, your readers are more attracted by the results you've obtained through your study. Therefore, you must take the time to explain each relevant result and explain how they impact your research. The results section exists as the longest in your abstract, and nothing should diminish its reach or quality.

One of the most important things you should adhere to is to spell out details and figures on the results of your research.

Instead of making a vague assertion such as, "We noticed that response rates varied greatly between respondents with high incomes and those with low incomes", Try these: "The response rate was higher for high-income respondents than those with lower incomes (59 30 percent vs. 30 percent in both cases; P<0.01)."

You're likely to encounter certain obstacles during your research. It could have been during data collection or even during conducting the sample . Whatever the issue, it's essential to inform your readers about them and their effects on the research.

Research limitations offer an opportunity to suggest further and deep research. If, for instance, you were forced to change for convenient sampling and snowball samples because of difficulties in reaching well-suited research participants, then you should mention this reason when you write your research abstract. In addition, a lack of prior studies on the subject could hinder your research.

Your conclusion should include the same number of sentences to wrap the abstract as the introduction. The majority of researchers offer an idea of the consequences of their research in this case.

Your conclusion should include three essential components:

  • A significant take-home message.
  • Corresponding important findings.
  • The Interpretation.

Even though the conclusion of your abstract needs to be brief, it can have an enormous influence on the way that readers view your research. Therefore, make use of this section to reinforce the central message from your research. Be sure that your statements reflect the actual results and the methods you used to conduct your research.

examples-of-good-abstract-writing

Good Abstract Examples

Abstract example #1.

Children’s consumption behavior in response to food product placements in movies.

The abstract:

"Almost all research into the effects of brand placements on children has focused on the brand's attitudes or behavior intentions. Based on the significant differences between attitudes and behavioral intentions on one hand and actual behavior on the other hand, this study examines the impact of placements by brands on children's eating habits. Children aged 6-14 years old were shown an excerpt from the popular film Alvin and the Chipmunks and were shown places for the item Cheese Balls. Three different versions were developed with no placements, one with moderately frequent placements and the third with the highest frequency of placement. The results revealed that exposure to high-frequency places had a profound effect on snack consumption, however, there was no impact on consumer attitudes towards brands or products. The effects were not dependent on the age of the children. These findings are of major importance to researchers studying consumer behavior as well as nutrition experts as well as policy regulators."

Abstract Example #2

Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood. The abstract:

"The research conducted in this study investigated the effects of Facebook use on women's moods and body image if the effects are different from an internet-based fashion journal and if the appearance comparison tendencies moderate one or more of these effects. Participants who were female ( N = 112) were randomly allocated to spend 10 minutes exploring their Facebook account or a magazine's website or an appearance neutral control website prior to completing state assessments of body dissatisfaction, mood, and differences in appearance (weight-related and facial hair, face, and skin). Participants also completed a test of the tendency to compare appearances. The participants who used Facebook were reported to be more depressed than those who stayed on the control site. In addition, women who have the tendency to compare appearances reported more facial, hair and skin-related issues following Facebook exposure than when they were exposed to the control site. Due to its popularity it is imperative to conduct more research to understand the effect that Facebook affects the way people view themselves."

Abstract Example #3

The Relationship Between Cell Phone Use and Academic Performance in a Sample of U.S. College Students

"The cellphone is always present on campuses of colleges and is often utilised in situations in which learning takes place. The study examined the connection between the use of cell phones and the actual grades point average (GPA) after adjusting for predictors that are known to be a factor. In the end 536 students in the undergraduate program from 82 self-reported majors of an enormous, public institution were studied. Hierarchical analysis ( R 2 = .449) showed that use of mobile phones is significantly ( p < .001) and negative (b equal to -.164) connected to the actual college GPA, after taking into account factors such as demographics, self-efficacy in self-regulated learning, self-efficacy to improve academic performance, and the actual high school GPA that were all important predictors ( p < .05). Therefore, after adjusting for other known predictors increasing cell phone usage was associated with lower academic performance. While more research is required to determine the mechanisms behind these results, they suggest the need to educate teachers and students to the possible academic risks that are associated with high-frequency mobile phone usage."

quick-tips-on-writing-a-good-abstract

Quick tips on writing a good abstract

There exists a common dilemma among early age researchers whether to write the abstract at first or last? However, it's recommended to compose your abstract when you've completed the research since you'll have all the information to give to your readers. You can, however, write a draft at the beginning of your research and add in any gaps later.

If you find abstract writing a herculean task, here are the few tips to help you with it:

1. Always develop a framework to support your abstract

Before writing, ensure you create a clear outline for your abstract. Divide it into sections and draw the primary and supporting elements in each one. You can include keywords and a few sentences that convey the essence of your message.

2. Review Other Abstracts

Abstracts are among the most frequently used research documents, and thousands of them were written in the past. Therefore, prior to writing yours, take a look at some examples from other abstracts. There are plenty of examples of abstracts for dissertations in the dissertation and thesis databases.

3. Avoid Jargon To the Maximum

When you write your abstract, focus on simplicity over formality. You should  write in simple language, and avoid excessive filler words or ambiguous sentences. Keep in mind that your abstract must be readable to those who aren't acquainted with your subject.

4. Focus on Your Research

It's a given fact that the abstract you write should be about your research and the findings you've made. It is not the right time to mention secondary and primary data sources unless it's absolutely required.

Conclusion: How to Structure an Interesting Abstract?

Abstracts are a short outline of your essay. However, it's among the most important, if not the most important. The process of writing an abstract is not straightforward. A few early-age researchers tend to begin by writing it, thinking they are doing it to "tease" the next step (the document itself). However, it is better to treat it as a spoiler.

The simple, concise style of the abstract lends itself to a well-written and well-investigated study. If your research paper doesn't provide definitive results, or the goal of your research is questioned, so will the abstract. Thus, only write your abstract after witnessing your findings and put your findings in the context of a larger scenario.

The process of writing an abstract can be daunting, but with these guidelines, you will succeed. The most efficient method of writing an excellent abstract is to centre the primary points of your abstract, including the research question and goals methods, as well as key results.

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Role of an Abstract in Research Paper With Examples

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Why does one write an abstract? What is so intriguing about writing an abstract in research paper after writing a full length research paper? How do research paper abstracts or summaries help a researcher during research publishing? These are the most common and frequently pondered upon questions that early career researchers search answers for over the internet!

Table of Contents

What does Abstract mean in Research?

In Research, abstract is “a well-developed single paragraph which is approximately 250 words in length”. Furthermore, it is single-spaced single spaced. Abstract outlines all the parts of the paper briefly. Although the abstract is placed in the beginning of the research paper immediately after research title , the abstract is the last thing a researcher writes.

Why Is an Abstract Necessary in Research Paper?

Abstract is a concise academic text that –

  • Helps the potential reader get the relevance of your research study for their own research
  • Communicates your key findings for those who have time constraints in reading your paper
  • And helps rank the article on search engines based on the keywords on academic databases.

Purpose of Writing an Abstract in Research

Abstracts are required for –

  • Submission of articles to journals
  • Application for research grants
  • Completion and submission of thesis
  • Submission of proposals for conference papers.

Aspects Included in an Abstract

The format of your abstract depends on the field of research, in which you are working. However, all abstracts broadly cover the following sections:

Reason for Writing

One can start with the importance of conducting their research study. Furthermore, you could start with a broader research question and address why would the reader be interested in that particular research question.

Research Problem

You could mention what problem the research study chooses to address. Moreover, you could elaborate about the scope of the project, the main argument, brief about thesis objective or what the study claims.

  • Methodology

Furthermore, you could mention a line or two about what approach and specific models the research study uses in the scientific work. Some research studies may discuss the evidences in throughout the paper, so instead of writing about methodologies you could mention the types of evidence used in the research.

The scientific research aims to get the specific data that indicates the results of the project. Therefore, you could mention the results and discuss the findings in a broader and general way.

Finally, you could discuss how the research work contributes to the scientific society and adds knowledge on the topic. Also, you could specify if your findings or inferences could help future research and researchers.

Types of Abstracts

Based on the abstract content —, 1. descriptive.

This abstract in research paper is usually short (50-100 words). These abstracts have common sections, such as –

  • Focus of research
  • Overview of the study.

This type of research does not include detailed presentation of results and only mention results through a phrase without contributing numerical or statistical data . Descriptive abstracts guide readers on the nature of contents of the article.

2. Informative

This abstract gives the essence of what the report is about and it is usually about 200 words. These abstracts have common sections, such as –

  • Aim or purpose

This abstract provides an accurate data on the contents of the work, especially on the results section.

Based on the writing format —

1. structured.

This type of abstract has a paragraph for each section: Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Conclusion. Also, structured abstracts are often required for informative abstracts.

2. Semi-structured

A semi-structured abstract is written in only one paragraph, wherein each sentence corresponds to a section. Furthermore, all the sections mentioned in the structured abstract are present in the semi-structured abstract.

3. Non-structured

In a non-structured abstract there are no divisions between each section. The sentences are included in a single paragraph. This type of presentation is ideal for descriptive abstracts.

Examples of Abstracts

Abstract example 1: clinical research.

Neutralization of Omicron BA.1, BA.2, and BA.3 SARS-CoV-2 by 3 doses of BNT162b2 vaccine

Abstract: The newly emerged Omicron SARS-CoV-2 has several distinct sublineages including BA.1, BA.2, and BA.3. BA.1 accounts for the initial surge and is being replaced by BA.2, whereas BA.3 is at a low prevalence at this time. Here we report the neutralization of BNT162b2-vaccinated sera (collected 1 month after dose 3) against the three Omicron sublineages. To facilitate the neutralization testing, we have engineered the complete BA.1, BA.2, or BA.3 spike into an mNeonGreen USA-WA1/2020 SARS-CoV-2. All BNT162b2-vaccinated sera neutralize USA-WA1/2020, BA.1-, BA.2-, and BA.3-spike SARS-CoV-2s with titers of >20; the neutralization geometric mean titers (GMTs) against the four viruses are 1211, 336, 300, and 190, respectively. Thus, the BA.1-, BA.2-, and BA.3-spike SARS-CoV-2s are 3.6-, 4.0-, and 6.4-fold less efficiently neutralized than the USA-WA1/2020, respectively. Our data have implications in vaccine strategy and understanding the biology of Omicron sublineages.

Type of Abstract: Informative and non-structured

Abstract Example 2: Material Science and Chemistry

Breaking the nanoparticle’s dispersible limit via rotatable surface ligands

Abstract: Achieving versatile dispersion of nanoparticles in a broad range of solvents (e.g., water, oil, and biofluids) without repeatedly recourse to chemical modifications are desirable in optoelectronic devices, self-assembly, sensing, and biomedical fields. However, such a target is limited by the strategies used to decorate nanoparticle’s surface properties, leading to a narrow range of solvents for existing nanoparticles. Here we report a concept to break the nanoparticle’s dispersible limit via electrochemically anchoring surface ligands capable of sensing the surrounding liquid medium and rotating to adapt to it, immediately forming stable dispersions in a wide range of solvents (polar and nonpolar, biofluids, etc.). Moreover, the smart nanoparticles can be continuously electrodeposited in the electrolyte, overcoming the electrode surface-confined low throughput limitation of conventional electrodeposition methods. The anomalous dispersive property of the smart Ag nanoparticles enables them to resist bacteria secreted species-induced aggregation and the structural similarity of the surface ligands to that of the bacterial membrane assists them to enter the bacteria, leading to high antibacterial activity. The simple but massive fabrication process and the enhanced dispersion properties offer great application opportunities to the smart nanoparticles in diverse fields.

Type of Abstract: Descriptive and non-structured

Abstract Example 3: Clinical Toxicology

Evaluation of dexmedetomidine therapy for sedation in patients with toxicological events at an academic medical center

Introduction: Although clinical use of dexmedetomidine (DEX), an alpha2-adrenergic receptor agonist, has increased, its role in patients admitted to intensive care units secondary to toxicological sequelae has not been well established.

Objectives: The primary objective of this study was to describe clinical and adverse effects observed in poisoned patients receiving DEX for sedation.

Methods: This was an observational case series with retrospective chart review of poisoned patients who received DEX for sedation at an academic medical center. The primary endpoint was incidence of adverse effects of DEX therapy including bradycardia, hypotension, seizures, and arrhythmias. For comparison, vital signs were collected hourly for the 5 h preceding the DEX therapy and every hour during DEX therapy until the therapy ended. Additional endpoints included therapy duration; time within target Richmond Agitation Sedation Score (RASS); and concomitant sedation, analgesia, and vasopressor requirements.

Results: Twenty-two patients were included. Median initial and median DEX infusion rates were similar to the commonly used rates for sedation. Median heart rate was lower during the therapy (82 vs. 93 beats/minute, p < 0.05). Median systolic blood pressure before and during therapy was similar (111 vs. 109 mmHg, p = 0.745). Five patients experienced an adverse effect per study definitions during therapy. No additional adverse effects were noted. Median time within target RASS and duration of therapy was 6.5 and 44.5 h, respectively. Seventeen patients (77%) had concomitant use of other sedation and/or analgesia with four (23%) of these patients requiring additional agents after DEX initiation. Seven patients (32%) had concomitant vasopressor support with four (57%) of these patients requiring vasopressor support after DEX initiation.

Conclusion: Common adverse effects of DEX were noted in this study. The requirement for vasopressor support during therapy warrants further investigation into the safety of DEX in poisoned patients. Larger, comparative studies need to be performed before the use of DEX can be routinely recommended in poisoned patients.

Keywords: Adverse effects; Alpha2-adrenergic receptor agonist; Overdose; Safety.

Type of Abstract: Informative and structured .

How was your experience  writing an abstract? What type of abstracts have you written? Do write to us or leave a comment below.

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How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper | Examples

what is abstract on a research paper

What is a research paper abstract?

Research paper abstracts summarize your study quickly and succinctly to journal editors and researchers and prompt them to read further. But with the ubiquity of online publication databases, writing a compelling abstract is even more important today than it was in the days of bound paper manuscripts.

Abstracts exist to “sell”  your work, and they could thus be compared to the “executive summary” of a business resume: an official briefing on what is most important about your research. Or the “gist” of your research. With the majority of academic transactions being conducted online, this means that you have even less time to impress readers–and increased competition in terms of other abstracts out there to read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) notes that there are  12 questions or “points” considered in the selection process  for journals and conferences and stresses the importance of having an abstract that ticks all of these boxes. Because it is often the ONLY chance you have to convince readers to keep reading, it is important that you spend time and energy crafting an abstract that faithfully represents the central parts of your study and captivates your audience.

With that in mind, follow these suggestions when structuring and writing your abstract, and learn how exactly to put these ideas into a solid abstract that will captivate your target readers.

Before Writing Your Abstract

How long should an abstract be.

All abstracts are written with the same essential objective: to give a summary of your study. But there are two basic styles of abstract: descriptive and informative . Here is a brief delineation of the two:

Of the two types of abstracts, informative abstracts are much more common, and they are widely used for submission to journals and conferences. Informative abstracts apply to lengthier and more technical research and are common in the sciences, engineering, and psychology, while descriptive abstracts are more likely used in humanities and social science papers. The best method of determining which abstract type you need to use is to follow the instructions for journal submissions and to read as many other published articles in those journals as possible.

Research Abstract Guidelines and Requirements

As any article about research writing will tell you, authors must always closely follow the specific guidelines and requirements indicated in the Guide for Authors section of their target journal’s website. The same kind of adherence to conventions should be applied to journal publications, for consideration at a conference, and even when completing a class assignment.

Each publisher has particular demands when it comes to formatting and structure. Here are some common questions addressed in the journal guidelines:

  • Is there a maximum or minimum word/character length?
  • What are the style and formatting requirements?
  • What is the appropriate abstract type?
  • Are there any specific content or organization rules that apply?

There are of course other rules to consider when composing a research paper abstract. But if you follow the stated rules the first time you submit your manuscript, you can avoid your work being thrown in the “circular file” right off the bat.

Identify Your Target Readership

The main purpose of your abstract is to lead researchers to the full text of your research paper. In scientific journals, abstracts let readers decide whether the research discussed is relevant to their own interests or study. Abstracts also help readers understand your main argument quickly. Consider these questions as you write your abstract:

  • Are other academics in your field the main target of your study?
  • Will your study perhaps be useful to members of the general public?
  • Do your study results include the wider implications presented in the abstract?

Outlining and Writing Your Abstract

What to include in an abstract.

Just as your  research paper title  should cover as much ground as possible in a few short words, your abstract must cover  all  parts of your study in order to fully explain your paper and research. Because it must accomplish this task in the space of only a few hundred words, it is important not to include ambiguous references or phrases that will confuse the reader or mislead them about the content and objectives of your research. Follow these  dos  and  don’ts  when it comes to what kind of writing to include:

  • Avoid acronyms or abbreviations since these will need to be explained in order to make sense to the reader, which takes up valuable abstract space. Instead, explain these terms in the Introduction section of the main text.
  • Only use references to people or other works if they are well-known. Otherwise, avoid referencing anything outside of your study in the abstract.
  • Never include tables, figures, sources, or long quotations in your abstract; you will have plenty of time to present and refer to these in the body of your paper.

Use keywords in your abstract to focus your topic

A vital search tool is the research paper keywords section, which lists the most relevant terms directly underneath the abstract. Think of these keywords as the “tubes” that readers will seek and enter—via queries on databases and search engines—to ultimately land at their destination, which is your paper. Your abstract keywords should thus be words that are commonly used in searches but should also be highly relevant to your work and found in the text of your abstract. Include 5 to 10 important words or short phrases central to your research in both the abstract and the keywords section.

For example, if you are writing a paper on the prevalence of obesity among lower classes that crosses international boundaries, you should include terms like “obesity,” “prevalence,” “international,” “lower classes,” and “cross-cultural.” These are terms that should net a wide array of people interested in your topic of study. Look at our nine rules for choosing keywords for your research paper if you need more input on this.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

As mentioned above, the abstract (especially the informative abstract) acts as a surrogate or synopsis of your research paper, doing almost as much work as the thousands of words that follow it in the body of the main text. In the hard sciences and most social sciences, the abstract includes the following sections and organizational schema.

Each section is quite compact—only a single sentence or two, although there is room for expansion if one element or statement is particularly interesting or compelling. As the abstract is almost always one long paragraph, the individual sections should naturally merge into one another to create a holistic effect. Use the following as a checklist to ensure that you have included all of the necessary content in your abstract.

how to structure an abstract list

1) Identify your purpose and motivation

So your research is about rabies in Brazilian squirrels. Why is this important? You should start your abstract by explaining why people should care about this study—why is it significant to your field and perhaps to the wider world? And what is the exact purpose of your study; what are you trying to achieve? Start by answering the following questions:

  • What made you decide to do this study or project?
  • Why is this study important to your field or to the lay reader?
  • Why should someone read your entire article?

In summary, the first section of your abstract should include the importance of the research and its impact on related research fields or on the wider scientific domain.

2) Explain the research problem you are addressing

Stating the research problem that your study addresses is the corollary to why your specific study is important and necessary. For instance, even if the issue of “rabies in Brazilian squirrels” is important, what is the problem—the “missing piece of the puzzle”—that your study helps resolve?

You can combine the problem with the motivation section, but from a perspective of organization and clarity, it is best to separate the two. Here are some precise questions to address:

  • What is your research trying to better understand or what problem is it trying to solve?
  • What is the scope of your study—does it try to explain something general or specific?
  • What is your central claim or argument?

3) Discuss your research approach

Your specific study approach is detailed in the Methods and Materials section .  You have already established the importance of the research, your motivation for studying this issue, and the specific problem your paper addresses. Now you need to discuss  how  you solved or made progress on this problem—how you conducted your research. If your study includes your own work or that of your team, describe that here. If in your paper you reviewed the work of others, explain this here. Did you use analytic models? A simulation? A double-blind study? A case study? You are basically showing the reader the internal engine of your research machine and how it functioned in the study. Be sure to:

  • Detail your research—include methods/type of the study, your variables, and the extent of the work
  • Briefly present evidence to support your claim
  • Highlight your most important sources

4) Briefly summarize your results

Here you will give an overview of the outcome of your study. Avoid using too many vague qualitative terms (e.g, “very,” “small,” or “tremendous”) and try to use at least some quantitative terms (i.e., percentages, figures, numbers). Save your qualitative language for the conclusion statement. Answer questions like these:

  • What did your study yield in concrete terms (e.g., trends, figures, correlation between phenomena)?
  • How did your results compare to your hypothesis? Was the study successful?
  • Where there any highly unexpected outcomes or were they all largely predicted?

5) State your conclusion

In the last section of your abstract, you will give a statement about the implications and  limitations of the study . Be sure to connect this statement closely to your results and not the area of study in general. Are the results of this study going to shake up the scientific world? Will they impact how people see “Brazilian squirrels”? Or are the implications minor? Try not to boast about your study or present its impact as  too  far-reaching, as researchers and journals will tend to be skeptical of bold claims in scientific papers. Answer one of these questions:

  • What are the exact effects of these results on my field? On the wider world?
  • What other kind of study would yield further solutions to problems?
  • What other information is needed to expand knowledge in this area?

After Completing the First Draft of Your Abstract

Revise your abstract.

The abstract, like any piece of academic writing, should be revised before being considered complete. Check it for  grammatical and spelling errors  and make sure it is formatted properly.

Get feedback from a peer

Getting a fresh set of eyes to review your abstract is a great way to find out whether you’ve summarized your research well. Find a reader who understands research papers but is not an expert in this field or is not affiliated with your study. Ask your reader to summarize what your study is about (including all key points of each section). This should tell you if you have communicated your key points clearly.

In addition to research peers, consider consulting with a professor or even a specialist or generalist writing center consultant about your abstract. Use any resource that helps you see your work from another perspective.

Consider getting professional editing and proofreading

While peer feedback is quite important to ensure the effectiveness of your abstract content, it may be a good idea to find an academic editor  to fix mistakes in grammar, spelling, mechanics, style, or formatting. The presence of basic errors in the abstract may not affect your content, but it might dissuade someone from reading your entire study. Wordvice provides English editing services that both correct objective errors and enhance the readability and impact of your work.

Additional Abstract Rules and Guidelines

Write your abstract after completing your paper.

Although the abstract goes at the beginning of your manuscript, it does not merely introduce your research topic (that is the job of the title), but rather summarizes your entire paper. Writing the abstract last will ensure that it is complete and consistent with the findings and statements in your paper.

Keep your content in the correct order

Both questions and answers should be organized in a standard and familiar way to make the content easier for readers to absorb. Ideally, it should mimic the overall format of your essay and the classic “introduction,” “body,” and “conclusion” form, even if the parts are not neatly divided as such.

Write the abstract from scratch

Because the abstract is a self-contained piece of writing viewed separately from the body of the paper, you should write it separately as well. Never copy and paste direct quotes from the paper and avoid paraphrasing sentences in the paper. Using new vocabulary and phrases will keep your abstract interesting and free of redundancies while conserving space.

Don’t include too many details in the abstract

Again, the density of your abstract makes it incompatible with including specific points other than possibly names or locations. You can make references to terms, but do not explain or define them in the abstract. Try to strike a balance between being specific to your study and presenting a relatively broad overview of your work.

Wordvice Resources

If you think your abstract is fine now but you need input on abstract writing or require English editing services (including paper editing ), then head over to the Wordvice academic resources page, where you will find many more articles, for example on writing the Results , Methods , and Discussion sections of your manuscript, on choosing a title for your paper , or on how to finalize your journal submission with a strong cover letter .    

Undergraduate Research Center | Office of Undergraduate Education

Undergraduate Research Center

The following instructions are for the Undergraduate Research Center's Undergraduate Research, Scholarship and Creative Activities Conference, however the general concepts will apply to abstracts for similar conferences.  In the video to the right, Kendon Kurzer, PhD presents guidance from the University Writing Program.  To see abstracts from previous URC Conferences, visit our Abstract Books Page .

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a summary of a research project. Abstracts precede papers in research journals and appear in programs of scholarly conferences. In journals, the abstract allows readers to quickly grasp the purpose and major ideas of a paper and lets other researchers know whether reading the entire paper will be worthwhile. In conferences, the abstract is the advertisement that the paper/presentation deserves the audience's attention.

Why write an abstract?

The abstract allows readers to make decisions about your project. Your sponsoring professor can use the abstract to decide if your research is proceeding smoothly. The conference organizer uses it to decide if your project fits the conference criteria. The conference audience (faculty, administrators, peers, and presenters' families) uses your abstract to decide whether or not to attend your presentation. Your abstract needs to take all these readers into consideration.

How does an abstract appeal to such a broad audience?

The audience for the abstract for the Undergraduate Research, Scholarship and Creative Activities Conference (URSCA) covers the broadest possible scope--from expert to lay person. You need to find a comfortable balance between writing an abstract that both shows your knowledge and yet is still comprehensible--with some effort--by lay members of the audience. Limit the amount of technical language you use and explain it where possible. Always use the full term before you refer to it by acronym Example:  DNA double-stranded breaks (DSBs). Remember that you are yourself an expert in the field that you are writing about--don't take for granted that the reader will share your insider knowledge.

What should the abstract include?

Think of your abstract as a condensed version of your whole project. By reading it, the reader should understand the nature of your research question.

Like abstracts that researchers prepare for scholarly conferences, the abstract you submit for the Undergraduate Research, Scholarship and Creativities Conference (URSCA) will most likely reflect work still in progress at the time you write it. Although the content will vary according to field and specific project, all abstracts, whether in the sciences or the humanities, convey the following information:

  • The purpose of the project identifying the area of study to which it belongs.
  • The research problem that motivates the project.
  • The methods used to address this research problem, documents or evidence analyzed.
  • The conclusions reached or, if the research is in progress, what the preliminary results of the investigation suggest, or what the research methods demonstrate.
  • The significance of the research project. Why are the results useful? What is new to our understanding as the result of your inquiry?

Whatever kind of research you are doing, your abstract should provide the reader with answers to the following questions: What are you asking? Why is it important? How will you study it? What will you use to demonstrate your conclusions? What are those conclusions? What do they mean?

SUGGESTED CONTENT STRUCTURE:  

Brief Background/Introduction/Research Context:       What do we know about the topic? Why is the topic important?   Present Research Question/Purpose:       What is the study about? Methods/Materials/Subjects/Materials:       How was the study done? Results/Findings:         What was discovered?    Discussion/Conclusion/Implications/Recommendations       What does it mean?

What if the research is in progress and I don't have results yet? 

For the URSCA Conference you can write a "Promissory Abstract"  which will still describe the background, purpose and how you will accomplish your study's purpose and why it is important.  Phrases like  "to show whether"  or "to determine if"  can be helpful to avoid sharing a "hoped for" result. 

Stylistic considerations

The abstract should be one paragraph for the URSCA Conference and should not exceed the word limit (150-200 words). Edit it closely to be sure it meets the Four C's of abstract writing:

  • Complete — it covers the major parts of the project.
  • Concise — it contains no excess wordiness or unnecessary information.
  • Clear — it is readable, well organized, and not too jargon-laden.
  • Cohesive — it flows smoothly between the parts.

The importance of understandable language

Because all researchers hope their work will be useful to others, and because good scholarship is increasingly used across disciplines, it is crucial to make the language of your abstracts accessible to a non-specialist. Simplify your language. Friends in another major will spot instantly what needs to be more understandable. Some problem areas to look for:

  • Eliminate jargon. Showing off your technical vocabulary will not demonstrate that your research is valuable. If using a technical term is unavoidable, add a non-technical synonym to help a non-specialist infer the term's meaning.
  • Omit needless words—redundant modifiers, pompous diction, excessive detail.
  • Avoid stringing nouns together (make the relationship clear with prepositions).
  • Eliminate "narration," expressions such as "It is my opinion that," "I have concluded," "the main point supporting my view/concerns," or "certainly there is little doubt as to. . . ." Focus attention solely on what the reader needs to know.

Before submitting your abstract to the URSCA Conference:

  • Make sure it is within the word limit.  You can start with a large draft and then edit it down to make sure your abstract is complete but also concise.  (Over-writing is all too easy, so reserve time for cutting your abstract down to the essential information.).  
  • Make sure the language is understandable by a non-specialist. (Avoid writing for an audience that includes only you and your professor.)
  • Have your sponsoring professor work with you and approve the abstract before you submit it online.
  • Only one abstract per person is allowed for the URSCA Conference.  

Multimedia Risk Assessment of Biodiesel - Tier II Antfarm Project

Significant knowledge gaps exist in the fate, transport, biodegradation, and toxicity properties of biodiesel when it is leaked into the environment. In order to fill these gaps, a combination of experiments has been developed in a Multimedia Risk Assessment of Biodiesel for the State of California. Currently, in the Tier II experimental phase of this assessment, I am investigating underground plume mobility of 20% and 100% additized and unadditized Soy and Animal Fat based biodiesel blends and comparing them to Ultra Low-Sulfer Diesel #2 (USLD) by filming these fuels as they seep through unsaturated sand, encounter a simulated underground water table, and form a floating lens on top of the water. Thus far, initial findings in analyzing the digital images created during the filming process have indicated that all fuels tested have similar travel times. SoyB20 behaves most like USLD in that they both have a similar lateral dispersion lens on top of the water table. In contrast, Animal Fat B100 appears to be most different from ULSD in that it has a narrower residual plume in the unsaturated sand, as well as a narrower and deeper lens formation on top of the water table.

Narrative Representation of Grief

In William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying and Kazuo Ishiguro's Never Let Me Go how can grief, an incomprehensible and incommunicable emotion, be represented in fiction? Is it paradoxical, or futile, to do so? I look at two novels that struggle with representing intense combinations of individual and communal grief: William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying and Kazuo Ishiguro's Never Let Me Go . At first glance, the novels appear to have nothing in common: Faulkner's is a notoriously bleak odyssey told in emotionally heavy stream-of-consciousness narrative, while Ishiguro's is a near-kitschy blend of a coming-of-age tale and a sci-fi dystopia. But they share a rare common thread. They do not try to convey a story, a character, an argument, or a realization, so much as they try to convey an emotion. The novels' common struggle is visible through their formal elements, down to the most basic technical aspects of how the stories are told. Each text, in its own way, enacts the trauma felt by its characters because of their grief, and also the frustration felt by its narrator (or narrators) because of the complex and guilty task of witnessing for grief and loss.

This webpage was based on articles written by Professor Diana Strazdes, Art History and Dr. Amy Clarke, University Writing Program, UC Davis. Thanks to both for their contributions.

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How to Write an APA Abstract

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

what is abstract on a research paper

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

what is abstract on a research paper

Verywell / Nusha Ashjaee 

  • Writing Your Abstract
  • How to Use Keywords

An APA abstract is a concise but comprehensive summary of a scientific paper. It is typically a paragraph long, or about 150 to 250 words. The goal of the abstract is to provide the reader with a brief and accurate idea of what a paper is about.

The APA abstract should appear on a separate page immediately after the title page and before the main content of your paper. While professional papers that appear in scientific journals and other publications require an APA abstract, they may not be required for student papers. However, you should always check with your instructor for specific requirements.

What Is APA Format?

APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association. It is used in writing for psychology and other social sciences. These style guidelines specify different aspects of a document's presentation and layout, including how pages are structured, how references are organized, and how sources are cited.

This article explains how to create an abstract in APA format for your psychology papers or other types of scientific writing. It covers the basic rules you should follow as well as specific guidelines for writing abstracts for experimental reports, literature reviews, and other articles.

What Is an Abstract in APA Format?

In addition to providing guidance for the general style and organization of a paper, APA format also stipulates using an abstract designed to briefly summarize the key details in a paper.

While it is sometimes overlooked or only an afterthought, an abstract is an integral part of any academic or professional paper. The abstract is a critical component of an APA-formatted paper. This brief overview summarizes what your paper contains. It should succinctly and accurately represent what your paper is about and what the reader can expect to find.

Following a few simple guidelines, you can create an abstract following the format. Done well, an abstract generates interest in your work and helps readers learn if the paper will interest them.

APA Format Abstract Basics

The abstract is the second page of a lab report or APA-format paper and should immediately follow the title page . Think of an abstract as a highly condensed summary of your entire paper.

The purpose of your abstract is to provide a brief yet thorough overview of your paper. It should function much like your title page—it should allow the person reading it to quickly determine what your paper is all about. Your abstract is the first thing that most people will read, and it is usually what informs their decision to read the rest of your paper.

The abstract is the single most important paragraph in your entire paper, according to the APA Publication Manual. A good abstract lets the reader know that your paper is worth reading.

According to the official guidelines of the American Psychological Association, an abstract should be brief but packed with information. Each sentence must be written with maximum impact in mind. To keep your abstract short, focus on including just four or five of the essential points, concepts, or findings.

An abstract must also be objective and accurate. The abstract's purpose is to report rather than provide commentary. It should accurately reflect what your paper is about. Only include information that is also included in the body of your paper.

Key Elements of an APA Abstract

Your abstract page should include:

  • A running head , which is a shortened version of your title that appears in all caps at the top left of each page of your paper
  • A section label , which should be the word "Abstract" centered and bolded at the top of the page
  • A page number , which should be the second page of your paper (the title page should be page 1)
  • A double-spaced paragraph of about 150 to 250 words
  • An indented list of keywords related to your paper's content. Include the label "Keywords:" in italics and list three to five keywords that are separated by commas

How to Write an Abstract in APA Format

Before you write your abstract, you first need to write your paper in its entirety. In order to write a good abstract, you need to have a finished draft of your paper so you can summarize it accurately.

While the abstract will be at the beginning of your paper, it should be the last section you write.

Once you have completed the final draft of your psychology paper , use it as a guide for writing your abstract.

  • Begin your abstract on a new page . Place your running head and page number 2 in the top right-hand corner. Center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page.
  • Know your target word count . An abstract should be between 150 and 250 words. Exact word counts vary from journal to journal . If you are writing your paper for a psychology course, your professor may have specific word requirements, so be sure to ask. The abstract should be written as only one paragraph with no indentation.
  • Structure the abstract in the same order as your paper . Begin with a brief summary of the introduction , and then continue on with a summary of the method , results , and discussion sections of your paper.
  • Look at other abstracts in professional journals for examples of how to summarize your paper . Notice the main points that the authors chose to mention in the abstract. Use these examples as a guide when choosing the main ideas in your own paper.
  • Write a rough draft of your abstract . Use the format required for your type of paper (see next sections). While you should aim for brevity, be careful not to make your summary too short. Try to write one to two sentences summarizing each section of your paper. Once you have a rough draft, you can edit for length and clarity.
  • Ask a friend to read over the abstract . Sometimes, having someone look at your abstract with fresh eyes can provide perspective and help you spot possible typos and other errors.

The abstract is vital to your paper, so it should not be overlooked or treated as an afterthought. Spend time writing this section carefully to ensure maximum readability and clarity.

It is important to remember that while the abstract is the last thing you write, it is often the most read part of your paper.

Experimental Report Abstracts

The format of your abstract also depends on the type of paper you are writing. For example, an abstract summarizing an experimental paper will differ from that of a meta-analysis or case study . For an experimental report, your abstract should:

  • Identify the problem . In many cases, you should begin by stating the question you sought to investigate and your hypothesis .
  • Describe the participants in the study . State how many participants took part and how they were selected. For example: "In this study, 215 undergraduate student participants were randomly assigned to [the experimental condition] or [the control condition]."
  • Describe the study method . For example, identify whether you used a within-subjects, between-subjects, or mixed design.
  • Give the basic findings . This is essentially a brief preview of the results of your paper. 
  • Provide any conclusions or implications of the study . What might your results indicate, and what directions does it point to for future research?

Literature Review Abstracts

If your paper is a meta-analysis or literature review, your abstract should:

  • Describe the problem of interest . In other words, what is it that you set out to investigate in your analysis or review?
  • Explain the criteria used to select the studies included in the paper . There may be many different studies devoted to your topic. Your analysis or review probably only looks at a portion of these studies. For what reason did you select these specific studies to include in your research?
  • Identify the participants in the studies . Inform the reader about who the participants were in the studies. Were they college students? Older adults? How were they selected and assigned?
  • Provide the main results . Again, this is essentially a quick peek at what readers will find when they read your results section. Don't try to include everything. Just provide a very brief summary of your main findings. 
  • Describe any conclusions or implications . What might these results mean and what do they reveal about the body of research that exists on this particular topic?

Lab Reports and Articles

Psychology papers such as lab reports and APA format articles also often require an abstract. In these cases as well, the abstract should include all of the major elements of your paper, including an introduction, hypothesis, methods, results, and discussion.

Remember, although the abstract should be placed at the beginning of your paper (right after the title page), you will write the abstract last after you have completed a final draft of your paper.

To ensure that all of your APA formatting is correct, consider consulting a copy of the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association .

Keywords in an APA Abstract

After the paragraph containing the main elements of your abstract, you can also include keywords related to your paper. Such keywords are used when indexing your paper in databases and can help researchers and students locate your paper when searching for information about those topics.

Because keywords help people find your paper, it is essential to choose the right ones. The APA suggests including between three and five keywords.

You can identify keywords by thinking about what your paper is about. For example, if your paper focuses on how social media use is related to depression in teenagers, you might include the keywords: social media, mood, depression, adolescents, social networking sites 

A Word From Verywell

The abstract may be very brief, but it is so important that the official APA style manual identifies it as the most important paragraph in your entire paper. Careful attention to detail can ensure that your abstract does a good job representing the contents of your paper. If possible, take your paper to your school's writing lab for assistance.

Nagda S. How to write a scientific abstract. J Indian Prosthodont Soc. 2013;13(3):382–383. doi:10.1007/s13191-013-0299-x

Kumar A. Writing an abstract: Revealing the essence with eloquence .  J Indian Soc Periodontol . 2022;26(1):1-2. doi:10.4103/jisp.jisp_634_21

American Psychological Association. APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards: Reporting Standards for Studies With an Experimental Manipulation .

American Psychological Association. APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards: Quantitative Meta-Analysis Article Reporting Standards .

Tullu MS. Writing the title and abstract for a research paper: Being concise, precise, and meticulous is the key .  Saudi J Anaesth . 2019;13(Suppl 1):S12-S17. doi:10.4103/sja.SJA_685_18

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). American Psychological Association; 2019.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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  • How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples

How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples

Published on 1 March 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022 by Eoghan Ryan.

An abstract is a short summary of a longer work (such as a dissertation or research paper ). The abstract concisely reports the aims and outcomes of your research, so that readers know exactly what your paper is about.

Although the structure may vary slightly depending on your discipline, your abstract should describe the purpose of your work, the methods you’ve used, and the conclusions you’ve drawn.

One common way to structure your abstract is to use the IMRaD structure. This stands for:

  • Introduction

Abstracts are usually around 100–300 words, but there’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check the relevant requirements.

In a dissertation or thesis , include the abstract on a separate page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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Table of contents

Abstract example, when to write an abstract, step 1: introduction, step 2: methods, step 3: results, step 4: discussion, tips for writing an abstract, frequently asked questions about abstracts.

Hover over the different parts of the abstract to see how it is constructed.

This paper examines the role of silent movies as a mode of shared experience in the UK during the early twentieth century. At this time, high immigration rates resulted in a significant percentage of non-English-speaking citizens. These immigrants faced numerous economic and social obstacles, including exclusion from public entertainment and modes of discourse (newspapers, theater, radio).

Incorporating evidence from reviews, personal correspondence, and diaries, this study demonstrates that silent films were an affordable and inclusive source of entertainment. It argues for the accessible economic and representational nature of early cinema. These concerns are particularly evident in the low price of admission and in the democratic nature of the actors’ exaggerated gestures, which allowed the plots and action to be easily grasped by a diverse audience despite language barriers.

Keywords: silent movies, immigration, public discourse, entertainment, early cinema, language barriers.

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You will almost always have to include an abstract when:

  • Completing a thesis or dissertation
  • Submitting a research paper to an academic journal
  • Writing a book proposal
  • Applying for research grants

It’s easiest to write your abstract last, because it’s a summary of the work you’ve already done. Your abstract should:

  • Be a self-contained text, not an excerpt from your paper
  • Be fully understandable on its own
  • Reflect the structure of your larger work

Start by clearly defining the purpose of your research. What practical or theoretical problem does the research respond to, or what research question did you aim to answer?

You can include some brief context on the social or academic relevance of your topic, but don’t go into detailed background information. If your abstract uses specialised terms that would be unfamiliar to the average academic reader or that have various different meanings, give a concise definition.

After identifying the problem, state the objective of your research. Use verbs like “investigate,” “test,” “analyse,” or “evaluate” to describe exactly what you set out to do.

This part of the abstract can be written in the present or past simple tense  but should never refer to the future, as the research is already complete.

  • This study will investigate the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.
  • This study investigates the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.

Next, indicate the research methods that you used to answer your question. This part should be a straightforward description of what you did in one or two sentences. It is usually written in the past simple tense, as it refers to completed actions.

  • Structured interviews will be conducted with 25 participants.
  • Structured interviews were conducted with 25 participants.

Don’t evaluate validity or obstacles here — the goal is not to give an account of the methodology’s strengths and weaknesses, but to give the reader a quick insight into the overall approach and procedures you used.

Next, summarise the main research results . This part of the abstract can be in the present or past simple tense.

  • Our analysis has shown a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
  • Our analysis shows a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
  • Our analysis showed a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.

Depending on how long and complex your research is, you may not be able to include all results here. Try to highlight only the most important findings that will allow the reader to understand your conclusions.

Finally, you should discuss the main conclusions of your research : what is your answer to the problem or question? The reader should finish with a clear understanding of the central point that your research has proved or argued. Conclusions are usually written in the present simple tense.

  • We concluded that coffee consumption increases productivity.
  • We conclude that coffee consumption increases productivity.

If there are important limitations to your research (for example, related to your sample size or methods), you should mention them briefly in the abstract. This allows the reader to accurately assess the credibility and generalisability of your research.

If your aim was to solve a practical problem, your discussion might include recommendations for implementation. If relevant, you can briefly make suggestions for further research.

If your paper will be published, you might have to add a list of keywords at the end of the abstract. These keywords should reference the most important elements of the research to help potential readers find your paper during their own literature searches.

Be aware that some publication manuals, such as APA Style , have specific formatting requirements for these keywords.

It can be a real challenge to condense your whole work into just a couple of hundred words, but the abstract will be the first (and sometimes only) part that people read, so it’s important to get it right. These strategies can help you get started.

Read other abstracts

The best way to learn the conventions of writing an abstract in your discipline is to read other people’s. You probably already read lots of journal article abstracts while conducting your literature review —try using them as a framework for structure and style.

You can also find lots of dissertation abstract examples in thesis and dissertation databases .

Reverse outline

Not all abstracts will contain precisely the same elements. For longer works, you can write your abstract through a process of reverse outlining.

For each chapter or section, list keywords and draft one to two sentences that summarise the central point or argument. This will give you a framework of your abstract’s structure. Next, revise the sentences to make connections and show how the argument develops.

Write clearly and concisely

A good abstract is short but impactful, so make sure every word counts. Each sentence should clearly communicate one main point.

To keep your abstract or summary short and clear:

  • Avoid passive sentences: Passive constructions are often unnecessarily long. You can easily make them shorter and clearer by using the active voice.
  • Avoid long sentences: Substitute longer expressions for concise expressions or single words (e.g., “In order to” for “To”).
  • Avoid obscure jargon: The abstract should be understandable to readers who are not familiar with your topic.
  • Avoid repetition and filler words: Replace nouns with pronouns when possible and eliminate unnecessary words.
  • Avoid detailed descriptions: An abstract is not expected to provide detailed definitions, background information, or discussions of other scholars’ work. Instead, include this information in the body of your thesis or paper.

If you’re struggling to edit down to the required length, you can get help from expert editors with Scribbr’s professional proofreading services .

Check your formatting

If you are writing a thesis or dissertation or submitting to a journal, there are often specific formatting requirements for the abstract—make sure to check the guidelines and format your work correctly. For APA research papers you can follow the APA abstract format .

Checklist: Abstract

The word count is within the required length, or a maximum of one page.

The abstract appears after the title page and acknowledgements and before the table of contents .

I have clearly stated my research problem and objectives.

I have briefly described my methodology .

I have summarized the most important results .

I have stated my main conclusions .

I have mentioned any important limitations and recommendations.

The abstract can be understood by someone without prior knowledge of the topic.

You've written a great abstract! Use the other checklists to continue improving your thesis or dissertation.

An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

  • To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
  • To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarises the contents of your paper.

An abstract for a thesis or dissertation is usually around 150–300 words. There’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check your university’s requirements.

The abstract is the very last thing you write. You should only write it after your research is complete, so that you can accurately summarize the entirety of your thesis or paper.

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

  • The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
  • The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

The abstract appears on its own page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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  • How to Write An Abstract For Research Papers: Tips & Examples

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In many ways, an abstract is like a trailer of a movie or the synopsis of your favorite book. Its job is to whet the reader’s appetite by sharing important information about your work. After reading a well-written abstract, one should have enough interest to explore the full research thesis. 

So how do you write an interesting abstract that captures the core of your study? First, you need to understand your research objectives and match them with the key results of your study. In this article, we will share some tips for writing an effective abstract, plus samples you can learn from. 

What is an Abstract in Research Writing?

In simple terms, an abstract is a concise write-up that gives an overview of your systematic investigation. According to Grammarly, it is a self-contained summary of a larger work, and it serves as a preview of the bigger document. 

It usually appears at the beginning of your thesis or research paper and helps the reader to have an overview of your work without going into great detail. This means that when someone reads your abstract, it should give them a clear idea of the purpose of your systematic investigation, your problem statement, key results, and any gaps requiring further investigation. 

So how long should your abstract be to capture all of these details? The reality is you don’t need a lot of words to capture key pieces of information in your abstract. Typically, 6–7 sentences made up of 150–250 words should be just right. 

Read: Writing Research Proposals: Tips, Examples & Mistakes

What are the Characteristics of a Good Abstract? 

  • A good abstract clearly states the aims and objectives of the research.
  • It outlines the research methodology for data gathering , processing and analysis. 
  • A good abstract summarizes specific research results.
  • It states the key conclusions of the systematic investigation.
  • It is brief yet straight to the point. 
  • A good abstract is unified and coherent. 
  • It is easy to understand and devoid of technical jargon. 
  • It is written in an unbiased and objective manner. 

What is the Purpose of an Abstract? 

Every abstract has two major purposes. First, it communicates the relevance of your systematic investigation to readers. After reading your abstract, people can determine how relevant your study is to their primary or secondary research purpose. 

The second purpose of an abstract is to communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper. Research papers typically run into tens of pages so it takes time to read and digest them. To help readers grasp the core ideas in a systematic investigation, it pays to have a well-written abstract that outlines important information concerning your study. 

In all, your abstract should accurately outline the most important information in your research. Many times, it determines whether people would go ahead to read your dissertation. Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your thesis easily findable.

Learn About: How to Write a Problem Statement for your Research

What are the Sections of an Abstract?

You already know the key pieces of information that your abstract should communicate. These details are broken into six important sections of the abstract which are: 

  • The Introduction or Background
  • Research Methodology
  • Aims and Objectives 
  • Limitations

Let’s discuss them in detail. 

  • The Introduction or Background 

The introduction or background is the shortest part of your abstract and usually consists of 2–3 sentences. In fact, some researchers write a single sentence as the introduction of their abstract. The whole idea here is to take the reader through the important events leading to your research. 

Understandably, this information may appear difficult to convey in a few sentences. To help out, consider answering these two questions in the background to your study : 

  • What is already known about the subject, related to the paper in question? 
  • What is not known about the subject (this is the focus of your study)? 

As much as possible, ensure that your abstract’s introduction doesn’t eat into the word count for the other key information. 

  • Research Methodology 

This is the section where you spell out any theories and methods adopted for your study. Ideally, you should cover what has been done and how you went about it to achieve the results of your systematic investigation. It is usually the second-longest section in the abstract. 

In the research methodology section, you should also state the type of research you embarked on; that is, qualitative research or quantitative research —this will inform your research methods too. If you’ve conducted quantitative research, your abstract should contain information like the sample size, data collection methods , sampling technique, and duration of your experiment. 

Explore: 21 Chrome Extensions for Academic Researchers in 2021

In the end, readers are most interested in the results you’ve achieved with your study. This means you should take time to outline every relevant outcome and show how they affect your research population . Typically, the results section should be the longest one in your abstract and nothing should compromise its range and quality. 

An important thing you should do here is spelled out facts and figures about research outcomes. Instead of a vague statement like, “we noticed that response rates differed greatly between high-income and low-income respondents”, try this: “The response rate was higher in high-income respondents than in their low-income counterparts (59% vs 30%, respectively; P

  • Conclusion 

Like the introduction, your conclusion should contain a few sentences that wrap up your abstract. Most researchers express a theoretical opinion about the implications of their study, here. 

Your conclusion should contain three important elements: 

  • The primary take-home message
  • The additional findings of importance
  • The perspective 

Although the conclusion of your abstract should be short, it has a great impact on how readers perceive your study. So, take advantage of this section to reiterate the core message in your systematic investigation. Also, make sure any statements here reflect the true outcomes and methods of your research. 

  • Limitations 

Chances are you must have faced certain challenges in the course of your research—it could be at the data collection phase or during sampling . Whatever these challenges are, it pays to let your readers know about them, and the impact they had on your study. 

For example, if you had to switch to convenience sampling or snowball sampling due to difficulties in contacting well-suited research participants, you should include this in your abstract. Also, a lack of previous studies in the research area could pose a limitation on your study. Research limitations provide an opportunity to make suggestions for further research. 

Research aims and objectives speak to what you want to achieve with your study. Typically, research aims focus on a project’s long-term outcomes while the objectives focus on the immediate, short-term outcome of the investigation. You may summarize both using a single paragraph comprising a few sentences.

Stating your aims and objectives will give readers a clear idea of the scope, depth, and direction that your research will ultimately take. Readers would measure your research outcomes against stated aims and objectives to know if you achieved the purpose of your study. 

Use For Free: Research Form Templates

Abstract Writing Styles and General Guidelines 

Now that you know the different sections plus information that your abstract should contain, let’s look at how to write an abstract for your research paper.

A common question that comes up is, should I write my abstract first or last? It’s best to write your abstract after you’ve finished working on the research because you have full information to present to your readers. However, you can always create a draft at the beginning of your systematic investigation and fill in the gaps later.  

Does writing an abstract seem like a herculean task? Here are a few tips to help out. 

1. Always create a framework for your abstract 

Before you start writing, take time to develop a detailed outline for your abstract. Break it into sections and sketch the main and supporting points for each section. You can list keywords plus 1–2 sentences that capture your core messaging. 

2. Read Other Abstracts 

Abstracts are one of the most common research documents, and thousands of them have been written in time past. So, before writing yours, try to study a couple of samples from others. You can find lots of dissertation abstract examples in thesis and dissertation databases.

3. Steer Clear of Jargon As Much As Possible 

While writing your abstract, emphasize clarity over style. This means you should communicate in simple terms and avoid unnecessary filler words and ambiguous sentences. Remember, your abstract should be understandable to readers who are not familiar with your topic. 

4. Focus on Your Research

It goes without saying that your abstract should be solely focused on your research and what you’ve discovered. It’s not the time to cite primary and secondary data sources unless this is absolutely necessary. 

This doesn’t mean you should ignore the scholarly background of your work. You might include a sentence or two summarizing the scholarly background to show the relevance of your work to a broader debate, but there’s no need to mention specific publications. 

Going further, here are some abstract writing guidelines from the University of Bergen: 

  • An abstract briefly explains the salient aspects of the content. 
  • Abstracts should be accurate and succinct, self-contained, and readable.  
  • The abstract should paraphrase and summarise rather than quote from the paper.
  • Abstracts should relate only to the paper to be presented/assessed.

Types of Abstracts with Examples 

According to the University of Adelaide, there are two major types of abstracts written for research purposes. First, we have informative abstracts and descriptive abstracts. 

1. Informative Abstract  

An informative abstract is the more common type of abstract written for academic research. It highlights the most important aspects of your systematic investigation without going into unnecessary or irrelevant details that the reader might not find useful. 

The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of longer work, it may be much less.

In any informative abstract, you’d touch on information like the purpose, method, scope, results, and conclusion of your study. By now, you’re thinking, “this is the type of abstract we’ve been discussing all along”, and you wouldn’t be far from the truth. 

Advantages of Informative Abstracts

  • These abstracts save time for both the researcher and the readers. 
  • It’s easy to refer to these abstracts as secondary research sources. 

Disadvantages of Informative Abstracts

  • These types of abstracts lack personality.

Example of an Informative Abstract

  • Sample Informative Abstract Based on Experimental Work From Colorado State University
  • Sample Informative Abstract Based on Non-experimental Work From Colorado State University

2. Descriptive Abstract 

A descriptive abstract reads like a synopsis and focuses on enticing the reader with interesting information. They don’t care as much for data and details, and instead read more like overviews that don’t give too much away. 

You’d find descriptive abstracts in artistic criticism pieces and entertainment research as opposed to scientific investigations. This type of abstract makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. They are usually written in 100 words or less. 

Advantages of Descriptive Abstracts

  • It gives a very brief overview of the research paper. 
  • It is easier to write descriptive abstracts compared to informational abstracts. 

Disadvantages of Descriptive Abstracts

  • They are suitable for scientific research. 
  • Descriptive abstracts might omit relevant information that deepens your knowledge of the systematic investigation.

Example of Descriptive Abstracts 

  • Sample Descriptive Abstract From Colorado State University

FAQs About Writing Abstracts in Research Papers

1. How Long Should an Abstract Be?

A typical abstract should be about six sentences long or less than 150 words. Most universities have specific word count requirements that fall within 150–300 words. 

2. How Do You Start an Abstract Sentence?

There are several ways to start your abstract. Consider the following methods: 

  • State a problem or uncertainty
  • Make a general statement with the present research action.
  • State the purpose or objective of your research
  • State a real-world phenomena or a standard practice.

3. Should you cite in an abstract?

While you can refer to information from specific research papers, there’s no need to cite sources in your abstract. Your abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others. 

4. What should not be included in an abstract?

An abstract shouldn’t have numeric references, bibliographies, sections, or even footnotes. 

5. Which tense is used in writing an abstract?

An abstract should be written in the third-person present tense. Use the simple past tense when describing your methodology and specific findings from your study. 

Writing an abstract might appear challenging but with these steps, you should get it right. The easiest approach to writing a good abstract is centering it on key information including your research problem and objectives, methodology, and key results.

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Persistence of Autism Spectrum Disorder From Early Childhood Through School Age

  • 1 Division of Developmental Medicine, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
  • 2 Rosamund Stone Zander Translational Neuroscience Center, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
  • Comment & Response Considerations in Early Autism Diagnosis Nicola Cirillo, DMD, LDS, MDS, MClinRes, DipPH, GCEd, PhD JAMA Pediatrics
  • Comment & Response Considerations in Early Autism Diagnosis Nihit Gupta, MD; Mayank Gupta, MD JAMA Pediatrics

Question   What is the frequency with which children diagnosed clinically with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) at 12 to 36 months of age continue to meet criteria for ASD based on functioning at 5 to 7 years of age, and what factors are associated with ASD persistence?

Findings   Of the 213 children in this cohort study, 79 (37%) had nonpersistent ASD. Higher baseline adaptive functioning and female sex were associated with nonpersistent ASD.

Meaning   These findings suggest that an ASD diagnosis in a child younger than 3 years may not persist, and child-specific factors may be associated with persistence.

Importance   While the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) continues to increase and early diagnosis is emphasized, there is limited information on outcomes for children diagnosed with ASD in early childhood using contemporary diagnostic criteria.

Objectives   To determine the frequency with which children who are clinically diagnosed with ASD at 12 to 36 months of age continue to meet diagnostic criteria for ASD at 5 to 7 years of age and to evaluate whether baseline child-specific and demographic characteristics and receipt of interventions are associated with ASD persistence.

Design, Setting, and Participants   In this natural history cohort study, children who received a clinical ASD diagnosis at 12 to 36 months of age underwent a research diagnostic assessment at 5 to 7 years of age. Research assessments occurred from August 14, 2018, to January 8, 2022.

Intervention   Children received community-based interventions, and parents provided details about interventions received.

Main Outcomes and Measures   The main outcome was persistence of ASD diagnosis based on current functioning. An experienced research psychologist assigned an ASD diagnosis (present or absent) according to criteria from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth Edition) after the research assessment. The research assessment included administration of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule–2, Autism Diagnostic Interview–Research, and a cognitive measure.

Results   Of the 213 participants diagnosed with ASD at initial clinical assessment (mean [SD] age, 24.6 [3.9] months; 177 boys [83.1%]), 79 (37.1%) did not continue to meet diagnostic criteria for ASD (nonpersistent ASD) at research assessment (mean [SD] age, 74.3 [7.1] months). All children with nonpersistent ASD had IQ of at least 70, while there was a bimodal distribution of IQ for those with persistent ASD (46 with IQ <70 and 88 with IQ ≥70). All children received some interventions, and 201 (94.4%) received ASD-specific intervention, mostly applied behavioral analysis. In a multilevel logistic regression model, the only variables associated with increased odds of being in the nonpersistent ASD group at 6 years of age were higher baseline adaptive skills (b coefficient = −0.287 [SE, 0.108]) and female sex (b = 0.239 [SE, 0.064]).

Conclusions and Relevance   The findings of this cohort study suggest that among toddlers diagnosed with ASD, baseline adaptive function and sex may be associated with persistence of ASD.

Read More About

Harstad E , Hanson E , Brewster SJ, et al. Persistence of Autism Spectrum Disorder From Early Childhood Through School Age. JAMA Pediatr. 2023;177(11):1197–1205. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2023.4003

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Psychiatric Symptoms Across the Menstrual Cycle in Adult Women: A Comprehensive Review

Learning objective.

After participating in this activity, learners should be better able to:

• Discuss and outline the general and overlapping effects of the menstrual cycle on women’s mental health

A growing body of research demonstrates menstrual cycle–dependent fluctuations in psychiatric symptoms; these fluctuations can therefore be considered as prevalent phenomena. Possible mechanisms underlying these fluctuations posit behavioral, psychological, and neuroendocrine influences. Recent reviews document cyclic exacerbation of symptoms and explore these mechanisms in the context of specific and often single disorders. The question remains, however, as to whether there are general and overlapping effects of the menstrual cycle on women’s mental health. To address this gap, we synthesized the literature examining the exacerbation of a variety of psychiatric symptoms across the menstrual cycle in adult women. Results show that the premenstrual and menstrual phases are most consistently implicated in transdiagnostic symptom exacerbation. Specifically, strong evidence indicates increases in psychosis, mania, depression, suicide/suicide attempts, and alcohol use during these phases. Anxiety, stress, and binge eating appear to be elevated more generally throughout the luteal phase. The subjective effects of smoking and cocaine use are reduced during the luteal phase, but fewer data are available for other substances. Less consistent patterns are demonstrated for panic disorder, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, and borderline personality disorder, and it is difficult to draw conclusions for symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and trichotillomania because of the limited data. Future research should focus on developing standardized approaches to identifying menstrual cycle phases and adapting pharmacological and behavioral interventions for managing fluctuations in psychiatric symptoms across the menstrual cycle.

The menstrual cycle is characterized by predictable and recurrent fluctuations in hormones—namely, the ovarian hormones estrogen and progesterone. The cycle is separated into two distinct phases: the follicular phase, which consists of the first part of the cycle lasting from menstruation to ovulation and which varies in length but typically lasts 14 days; and the luteal phase, which is the second half of the cycle following ovulation and leading up to menstruation, and consistently lasts 14 days (see Mihm et al. 1 for an overview). The days immediately prior to menstruation are often termed the premenstrual phase.

During menstruation, estrogen and progesterone levels are relatively low (see Figure ​ Figure1 1 ). 2 As the cycle advances through the follicular phase, estrogen levels spike, causing the pituitary gland to release a surge of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone—which facilitates the maturing of eggs within the ovaries. 3 When the most mature egg is released, the follicle transforms into a corpus luteum, which produces gradually increasing amounts of progesterone; a moderate amount of estrogen is also produced. 3 If the egg is not fertilized, progesterone and estrogen levels fall, the uterine lining breaks down, and the menstrual cycle resumes with menstruation, which typically lasts between 1 and 7 days. 4

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is hrp-30-100-g001.jpg

Estrogen and progesterone levels across a typical 28-day menstrual cycle (adapted from Glover et al. (2013). 2

This cyclic experience may influence women’s mental health through a variety of mechanisms. For example, many women experience physical discomfort (e.g., dysmenorrhea, breast tenderness, joint pain 5 ) around menstruation. This physical discomfort can be associated with increases in psychological distress and irritability, and decreased self-esteem. 6 Many women additionally report increased interpersonal conflicts and reduced social engagement premenstrually and during menstruation 7 , 8 —which may contribute to depression and isolation. 8 Negative affect is linked with increased impulsivity, 9 substance use, 10 and nonsuicidal self-injury. 11 As such, it is unsurprising that systematic and meta-analytic reviews find exacerbations of psychiatric symptoms across the menstrual cycle (e.g., Carroll et al. 12 ).

In addition to affective and behavioral impacts of the menstrual cycle, there are also several direct biological effects on mental health. For example, estrogen downregulates dopamine transmission, which mimics the antidopaminergic action of many antipsychotic medications. 13 Higher estrogen levels are hypothesized to protect against psychiatric symptoms, such as psychosis, thereby increasing vulnerability to psychosis when estrogen is low (e.g., menstruation, postpartum 14 , 15 ). Estrogen also assists in memory consolidation through increased hippocampal activation, 16 , 17 which, in the context of treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), has been shown to facilitate fear extinction recall. 18 Progesterone can have anxiolytic effects 19 through increases in allopregnanolone and, subsequently, increased GABA potentiation. 20 – 22 Other progesterone metabolites, however, are not anxiolytic. In the presence of stress, progesterone is converted into cortisol, increasing stress responses and impairing emotional processing. 23 To this end, it has been suggested that progesterone may underlie menstrual-related mood symptoms. 23

Recently, several elegant reviews documented menstrual exacerbations of numerous psychiatric symptoms, 24 including addictive behaviors, 25 psychosis, 15 suicidality, 26 anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder. 27 These reviews increased the scientific understanding of the effects of the menstrual cycle on women’s mental health, including the more pointed effects of estrogen and progesterone. Yet, no review to date comprehensively evaluated the impact of the menstrual cycle on psychiatric symptoms. To further this growing body of research, we conducted a comprehensive review synthesizing the literature on fluctuations in a broad spectrum of psychiatric disorders and symptoms across the menstrual cycle. Summarizing these data in such a way will allow us to potentially identify patterns and draw conclusions beyond what previous reviews examined.

Search Strategy

We conducted a comprehensive search using the PubMed database for articles focusing on psychiatric symptoms across the menstrual cycle. We used combinations of the following search terms to identify potentially relevant articles: menstrual cycle, psychosis, bipolar, mania, depression, suicide, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), body dysmorphic disorder, trichotillomania, excoriation, hoarding, impulse control, kleptomania, PTSD, eating disorder, anorexia, bulimia, binge eating, borderline personality disorder (BPD), intermittent explosive disorder, conduct disorder, pyromania, substance use, alcohol, and smoking. We compiled the results, removed duplicates, and reviewed the titles and abstracts of the remaining articles. We then read and assessed for eligibility the full texts of the remaining articles using the following criteria: studies (1) were published in English, (2) presented original findings, (3) included premenopausal women at least 18 years old, and (4) assessed relevant psychiatric symptoms during at least two menstrual cycle phases. We did not include articles focusing on symptoms in women with premenstrual syndrome (PMS) or premenstrual dysphoric disorder, as those conditions inherently vary across the menstrual cycle. See inclusion diagram (Supplemental Figure 1, http://links.lww.com/HRP/A187 ), and Supplemental Tables 1–10, http://links.lww.com/HRP/A188 , for full descriptions of the articles included.

Definition of Menstrual Cycle Phases

Most menstrual cycle research uses a “count” method to estimate cycle phases based on the first day of menstruation (Day 1). Estimates are often based on a 28-day cycle, although a substantial body of evidence suggests significant variation in cycle length in healthy women. 196 Indeed, the follicular phase has been found to vary by as much as 12 days. 197 The luteal phase, by contrast, lasts a relatively consistent amount of time—approximately 14 days. Some exceptions to this pattern include women with luteal phase disorders (e.g., short luteal phase). 198 , 199

Many articles included in this review have varying terminology and definitions of menstrual cycle phases. For example, occasionally the “premenstrual” phase is referred to as the mid- or late-luteal phase. “Perimenstrual” can include both premenstrual and menstrual phases, whereas “early follicular” can include menstruation and the initial days following menstruation. We report the findings using the language described in the articles reviewed; however, our synthesis of the data focuses on overall patterns during specific phases, regardless of terminology.

Quality Rating

To strengthen our synthesis of study results, we developed a quality rating based on study design. We considered studies to be of high quality if they included at least one biological indicator of the menstrual cycle (e.g., basal body temperature, hormone levels), sample size was ≥30 women per group, and, when applicable, clinical diagnoses were made.

Most reports on the exacerbation of psychotic symptoms across the menstrual cycle are single case studies. These studies retrospectively rely on a patient’s self-reported or clinician-observed experiences over several years or decades. In all but one 37 of the identified case studies, the authors reported recurrent psychosis during the premenstrual phase. 28 , 29 , 32 – 34 , 36 , 38 Often, symptom onset occurred at menarche. 34 Though many authors reported that psychotic or manic symptoms occurred during the week or days before menstruation, several noted that psychotic symptoms remitted upon menstruation. 28 , 38

Findings become less clear when examining larger populations. Ray and colleagues 39 followed 40 women with schizophrenia in an inpatient unit in India. Clinicians rated patients’ symptoms weekly for two consecutive menstrual cycles and found that positive symptoms of schizophrenia—namely, excitability and hostility—were highest during the premenstrual phase. Negative symptoms, such as withdrawal and difficulty with abstract thinking, were highest during menstruation. These findings complement earlier work by Harris, 30 who found that, in a sample of 39 inpatient women with schizophrenia, most women experienced affective changes, rather than overt psychosis, during the premenstrual phase. Conversely, in a large, community-based study of 278 healthy women from the United Kingdom, persecutorial thoughts increased during the paramenstrual phase (day 1 of menstruation ± 3 days) compared to midcycle (11–17 days prior to menstruation). 6 It is possible that certain menstrual fluctuations in paranoia exist in nonclinical samples and that affective fluctuations may be more common in clinical samples, where paranoia is more consistently pronounced. For women who also experience menstrual exacerbation of overt psychosis, the exacerbation appears to occur predominantly during the premenstrual phase. 31

Results from high-quality studies

The one high-quality study found that 32.4% of a sample of women with schizophrenia had cyclical worsening of psychotic symptoms. 35

Bipolar Disorders

Several case studies document menstrual fluctuations in symptoms of bipolar disorder. All but one study 43 identified in the present review reported instances of hypomania, 47 mania, 41 or psychosis 50 during the premenstrual and menstrual phases. Kukopoulos and colleagues 40 reported that a 28-year-old Sardinian woman regularly experienced hypomania two weeks and depression two days prior to menstruation, with gradual improvement throughout menstruation. Subsequent reports similarly note the onset of mania and hypomania days prior to menstruation, with some symptoms ceasing upon menstruation 41 or days after menstruation began. 47 The sole case study to report incongruent findings described one woman’s experience with menstrual onset of depression and luteal-phase onset of hypomania. 43

Results from larger clinical and community samples speak to these individual differences, as many studies report no overwhelming effect of the menstrual cycle on bipolar symptoms. 42 , 45 , 46 , 48 Cyclic effects were found, however, in numerous subgroups of study samples. In one study of 41 women, increases in depression and mania were observed during the luteal phase for some women (n’s of 8 and 5, respectively). 42 , 46 Similarly, Leibenluft and colleagues 42 found that, in a sample of 25 women with rapid-cycling bipolar disorder, 6 showed an increase in depression and 5 an increase in hypomania in the days following menstruation. Sit and colleagues 48 posit that the use of mood stabilizers and antipsychotics in treating bipolar disorders could mask patterns in symptom expression across the menstrual cycle. Indeed, one study examining menstrual cycle effects on mood in 34 Turkish women taking lithium or valproate for bipolar disorder and 35 healthy controls found greater mood variability across the cycle in healthy controls. 44 Properly treated bipolar disorder can stabilize naturally occurring menstrual effects on mood, 49 which may explain why large studies often find little or no effects of the menstrual cycle on symptom expression. Alternatively, it is possible that, in the study by Leibenluft and colleagues, 42 mood changes among women with rapid-cycling bipolar disorder occurred too quickly to demonstrate any effect of the menstrual cycle.

Only one study met criteria for being considered high quality. This study found greater mood variability across the menstrual cycle in healthy controls compared to those taking lithium or valproate.

Depression is a profound and often debilitating disorder that disproportionately affects women. 200 Research suggests that interactions among emotional and behavioral sensitivities to fluctuations in ovarian hormones across the menstrual cycle may be, for some women (e.g., see Schmidt et al. 201 ), primary factors leading to depressive symptoms. The concept of premenstrual mood worsening has been a focus of investigation for decades, with many, 52 – 54 , 57 , 58 , 68 but not all, 7 , 55 , 56 , 156 studies finding some evidence of symptom exacerbation (i.e., mood worsening) in this phase. Indeed, women have been treated with hormonal therapy for improving premenstrual symptoms, 51 , 202 with some success. Ongoing work seeks to better characterize the nature, timing, and mechanisms of changes in depression across the menstrual cycle to help develop and evaluate additional therapies.

Epidemiological and self-report studies assessing depressive symptoms in healthy women produced inconsistent findings. In a large study of 248 adult, premenopausal women (60% White), depressive symptoms and hormone levels were measured across at least two menstrual cycles. 71 The authors found no relationship between depressive symptoms and absolute levels of hormonal changes across the menstrual cycle, although women with more depressive symptoms also had worse premenstrual mood changes. Premenstrual mood worsening was also found in an earlier study, 59 and healthy women have reported higher symptoms of depression in both early and late follicular phases compared to the mid-luteal phase. 70 Another study, however, showed no relationship between menstrual cycle phase and negative affect. 74 It is possible that premenstrual mood worsening is related to decreases in reward responsivity. In general, reward responsivity (a possible biomarker for depression, with low reward sensitivity correlated with depression), appears to be highest in the follicular phase and lowest in the luteal phase. 76 , 77 , 191 , 192 , 203 Women in the late luteal phase of the menstrual cycle may also have difficulty with emotion perception as evidenced by neural differences in brain activation compared to men, 77 which could make them vulnerable to depression at this time. Another possibility is that individual women experience different patterns of mood changes throughout the cycle, with the consequence that analyzing data as a group may obfuscate individual differences. 69

An early study found that women with a history of treated depression reported greater symptoms of depression across the menstrual cycle compared to women without a history of depression. There was no phase-specific pattern in this sample; however, these data were collected retrospectively, which may have introduced recall bias. 61 In women with major depression, one study compared menstrual cycle phases at the time of psychiatric admissions, but these data were inconsistent 54 and did not reveal a clear pattern. In a large, community-based sample of 900 girls and women ages 13–54 years (n = 111 Black; n = 121 Hispanic), participants underwent diagnostic interviews and tracked their moods for two cycles. 65 Fifty-two participants had clinical (i.e., major depressive disorder or dysthymia) or subclinical depression. Women with clinical and subclinical depression reported greater symptom exacerbation in the premenstrual phase than did nondepressed women, though premenstrual symptom exacerbation was observed in all participants. Symptom worsening during the follicular phase was highest for clinically depressed, moderate for subclinically depressed, and low for non-depressed women. These data suggest that women with depression are at increased risk of premenstrual symptom worsening, 60 possibly due to impaired estrogen-related modulation of stress reactivity; 72 however, the pattern of increased mood symptoms premenstrually is also generally true across girls and women with and without depression. 78 Similar findings were demonstrated in a sample of Chinese women with depressive disorders. 66 Luteal phase decrease in positive affect has also been shown in women with fibromyalgia and rheumatoid arthritis, 64 and women with epilepsy show lower moods and increased seizures during menstruation. 78

The use of oral contraceptives further complicates the identification of clear patterns of how the menstrual cycle affects mood. In Sweden, a randomized, controlled trial of combined oral contraception (n = 84) compared to placebo (n = 94) examined the effect on mood during three consecutive menstrual cycles. 75 Cycle phases were menstrual (days 1 to 4), premenstrual (days −7 to −1), and intermenstrual (all remaining days). The study found that oral contraceptive users reported a small, significant worsening of mood symptoms during the intermenstrual phase; however, additional analyses revealed that this effect was primarily driven by a subgroup of women with previous significant mood symptoms associated with oral contraceptive use. Other studies reported similar findings, 62 regardless of the type of oral contraceptive used. 63 Interestingly, another randomized, controlled trial in Germany found the opposite pattern: healthy, PMS-free women taking oral contraceptives reported slightly better mood across the cycle compared to naturally cycling women. 73

Data from the high-quality studies do not offer much clarity. Several found that symptoms of depression were not related to absolute hormone levels, although one study focusing on women with clinical symptoms of depression and one study in healthy women both noted a premenstrual worsening of symptoms. Others found no relationship of depression to the menstrual cycle.

Most research in this domain employs psychiatric hospitalization admission data or interviews immediately following hospitalization for suicide attempts. Research consistently demonstrates that rates of self-harm, suicide, and suicide attempts are significantly elevated during the premenstrual and menstrual phases. 81 – 87 , 92 , 93 Histopathological reports suggest rates of completed suicides during the menstrual phase to range from 25% 89 to 54%. 88 Via autopsy, Leenaars and colleagues 89 and Dogra and colleagues 88 compared menstrual cycle phase at time of death in women who died by suicide versus other causes (e.g., motor vehicle accident). Despite the large difference in rates of suicides occurring during menstruation noted above, both studies reported similar rates of death by other causes during menstruation: 4.5% and 6.75%, respectively. Nonetheless, a disproportionate number of suicides occur during the menstrual phase compared to other phases of the menstrual cycle and other causes of death.

These rates are largely consistent with those seen in suicide attempts, with reported rates of attempts occurring during the menstrual phase ranging between 26% 84 and 42%. 79 , 84 Research grouping the premenstrual and menstrual phases reported rates of 47%, 80 and one study reported luteal-phase attempt rates as high as 67%. 91 Baca-García and colleagues 83 posit that women with histories of diagnosed psychiatric disorders are five times more likely to attempt suicide during the menstrual phase than those with no such history. Variations in rates of suicide attempts across the menstrual cycle appear to be unique to naturally cycling women. Fourestié and colleagues 79 found that, in a sample of 108 French women (35 naturally cycling) who attempted suicide, 42% of naturally cycling women attempted suicide while menstruating and 12% attempted during the premenstrual phase. They did not find associations with cycle phase and suicide among women using hormonal contraceptives.

Suicide is highly heritable, with rates ranging from 17%–55%. 204 – 208 Furthermore, serotonergic function and the serotonin transport gene 5-HTT are highly related to suicidal behavior (as reviewed in Kenna et al. 209 ). Researchers examined the possibility of gene × hormone interactions in rates of suicide and suicide attempts across the menstrual cycle. Baca-García and colleagues 84 assessed the role of allele variants in rates of suicide attempts among 104 naturally cycling, White women. Serum assays indicated that, of these women, 17 had two long alleles, 38 had two short alleles, and 49 had one long and one short allele. Among women with two long alleles, a significant proportion of suicide attempts occurred during the menstrual phase (41%). Furthermore, estradiol levels were significantly lower in women with long rather than short alleles. No significant phasic differences emerged for women with two short alleles. As such, it is possible that genetic vulnerabilities may underlie menstrual cycle exacerbations of suicidal behavior.

Eleven studies met criteria for being considered high quality, with nine studies indicating that rates of completed or attempted suicide were highest during menstruation and two studies indicating these rates were highest premenstrually.

Anxiety and Anxiety Disorders I: Anxiety and Stress

Symptoms of anxiety and stress have been examined in healthy women’s menstrual cycles across a variety of laboratory protocols. Research focusing on daily symptoms of anxiety, as well as anxiety in response to stressors, has found clear premenstrual exacerbations of anxiety, 60 , 67 , 94 – 96 , 103 , 115 although six studies (three of which had very small sample sizes) found no significant changes in anxiety related to the menstrual cycle. 55 , 56 , 98 , 99 , 102 , 113 Some research found a divergence between self-reported stress and cortisol responses to stress in healthy women, 98 , 107 while high levels of trait anxiety in women are associated with cortisol only in the follicular phase. 105 State and trait anxiety were related to daily reports of anxiety during the luteal phase compared to the follicular phase in a healthy sample of 203 women, 104 although another study showed that women high in state and trait anxiety do not show changes in symptoms across their menstrual cycles. 100 In the one study that examined the role of ovulation during the menstrual cycle, there were no differences in symptoms, regardless of whether the cycle was ovulatory or anovulatory. 68 A separate study assessing acoustic startle responses in women (as a proxy for anxiety) found larger startle magnitudes during ovulation and the late luteal phase, suggesting a potential vulnerability to anxiety during these phases. 109 Other research has also shown higher levels of anxiety in response to stressors, including exercise, 119 during the luteal phase. 108

Other psychological characteristics representative of anxiety have been explored as factors contributing to menstrual cycle symptom severity. Lower perceived levels of control over anxiety have been correlated with higher levels of menstrual severity, 111 which may be related to overall difficulty regulating emotions. 112 Similarly, higher levels of health anxiety are associated with increased perceived stress, but only during the late luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. 118 One recent study found that calmness was highest during the late luteal and menstrual phases; however, anxiety moderated the relationship between irritability and cycle phase, such that highly anxious women were more irritable during the late luteal and menstrual phases, when estrogen and progesterone levels are low. 114 Chronic anxiety may therefore be a risk factor for more severe premenstrual and menstrual symptoms. 210 In fact, high levels of estrogen may serve as a protective factor against psychosocial stress, as evidenced by changes in brain activation 110 and cardiovascular responses to stress. 106 Evidence also suggests that anxiety may be directly related to progesterone levels across the menstrual cycle, 116 although one recent study found no relationship of anxious jealousy to progesterone levels across the menstrual cycle. 117

Despite relatively consistent evidence of premenstrual anxiety exacerbation across the menstrual cycle, data also suggest that some women experience symptom exacerbation at mid-cycle and decreased symptoms premenstrually. 52 , 69 In a sample of 213 young women attending college in Italy, participant responses were separated into four groups using cluster analysis, with two of the groups suggesting a “classic” PMS pattern, one group revealing a non-cyclic pattern, and the last group suggesting the mid-cycle pattern described earlier. 69 This study represents an important step to examining individual differences across the menstrual cycle, rather than just assuming women experience similar changes across cycle phases—an approach demonstrated by earlier research comparing community volunteers with women who reported high levels of premenstrual symptoms. 101

Although most studies have excluded women using oral contraceptives, several studies have compared anxiety in women who were and were not using exogenous hormones. Generally, naturally cycling women demonstrate the expected pattern of anxiety (higher during menstrual and premenstrual phases), whereas women using oral contraceptives showed no change in anxiety. 97 , 98 One small study showed no cycle-phase or group differences in anxiety in women who were and were not taking oral contraceptives. 56

When examining high-quality studies only, the majority found no effect of menstrual cycle phase on anxiety, although women with high baseline anxiety seemed to experience more symptoms in the luteal phase.

Anxiety and Anxiety Disorders II: Generalized Anxiety Disorder

A recent study compared women with and without generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) on measures of mental and physical fatigue during the early follicular and mid-luteal phases. 121 The only difference to emerge was that women with GAD had higher mental fatigue in the early follicular phase. Furthermore, salivary estradiol and progesterone were not associated with measures of fatigue during any cycle phase. This is consistent with earlier research demonstrating increased symptoms of depression, anxiety, and hostility in women with GAD; however, symptom exacerbation was even greater for women with GAD and PMS, particularly in the premenstrual phase. 120

Neither study met our criteria for being considered high quality.

Anxiety and Anxiety Disorders III: Social Anxiety Disorder

In women with social anxiety disorder, higher social anxiety and avoidance were reported in the premenstrual phase of the menstrual cycle (week 4) compared to the three previous weeks. 122 In a separate study of Chinese women, salivary progesterone was positively correlated with self-reported social feedback sensitivity, regardless of menstrual cycle phase (late follicular or mid-luteal). 124 This finding is supported by a previous study in which progesterone levels were associated with increased attention to social stimuli. 123

Analysis of high-quality studies revealed no cycle effect of interpersonal sensitivity in healthy women, although the luteal phase was associated with greater attention to social stimuli and higher interpersonal anxiety.

Anxiety and Anxiety Disorders IV: Panic Disorder

One of the earliest studies compared retrospective versus prospective reports of anxiety and panic in a small sample of adult women with panic disorder. 127 Interestingly, most women (79%; n = 15) retrospectively reported worsening anxiety symptoms premenstrually, but prospective self-reported anxiety and daily frequency of panic attacks were similar pre- to postmenstrually. These data mirror two earlier published reports, 125 , 126 although another study found that prospective report of panic and anxiety clearly demonstrated premenstrual exacerbation of symptoms. 128

Research on mechanisms of panic disorder, such as anxiety sensitivity, has produced some important findings. 211 In a 1996 study, 337 college women were screened for anxiety sensitivity, and the lower and upper quartiles of respondents participated during either the intermenstrual (days 8 to 22) or premenstrual (days 24 to 28) phase of their cycles. 130 Women in the high anxiety-sensitivity group demonstrated elevated skin conductance reactivity to anxiety-provoking scenes in the premenstrual phase compared to those with low anxiety sensitivity or those in other phases of the menstrual cycle. The authors propose that these data were the first to link both state (menstrual cycle phase) and trait (high anxiety sensitivity) factors that may contribute to vulnerability to panic in women. Similar patterns were found in more recent studies in healthy women with high/low anxiety sensitivity. 134 Additionally, women with high anxiety sensitivity report more menstrual-related symptoms, 131 and women with asthma with or without panic disorder report more state anxiety, 133 regardless of cycle phase. 135

Laboratory-based studies often use what is known as a “CO2 challenge” to evaluate reactivity to the sensation of difficulty breathing. 212 , 213 In this approach, participants inhale a full lung capacity of a gas mixture (typically 35% CO 2 /65% O 2 ) and rate their levels of anxiety. One of the first studies to explore menstrual cycle effects in this paradigm found that women with panic disorder experience significantly more reactivity during the early follicular phase (day 4 of the menstrual cycle) than during the mid-luteal phase (8 days prior to menstruation), whereas healthy women show no differences across the menstrual cycle. 129 A separate laboratory study demonstrated elevated skin conductance responses to anxiety-provoking stimuli during the premenstrual phase in women with panic disorder compared to women without. 132

Two studies of healthy women were considered to be of high quality. They both found no menstrual cycle effects for anxiety generally, although high anxiety sensitivity was associated with higher cognitive panic symptoms in the premenstrual phase.

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders I: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Early retrospective studies suggested a link between exacerbation of OCD symptoms and the premenstrual phase, specifically. 136 , 137 The first study to evaluate this relationship prospectively included 101 women who met diagnostic criteria for OCD. 138 Approximately half of the women reported premenstrual worsening of OCD symptoms, as demonstrated by significantly higher scores on a self-report measure of OCD symptoms. In a laboratory-based study designed to measure OCD-related checking symptoms, no menstrual cycle phase differences (comparing mid-luteal and mid-follicular) were identified. 139

Only one study meeting criteria for high quality found no differences in checking behaviors.

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders II: Trichotillomania (Hairpulling)

A single published study explored the relationships among menstrual cycle phases and trichotillomania in 59 adult women. 140 Participants were retrospectively asked whether they believed whether their menstrual cycles and hairpulling were related, and 53.3% indicated that they were. Participants also reported a clear effect of menstrual phase when asked to indicate symptoms premenstrually, during menstruation, and postmenstrually, such that greater frequency and intensity of urges, greater frequency of hairpulling, and decreased ability to control hairpulling were all significantly higher in the premenstrual phase than in the other phases.

The one identified study did not meet our criteria for being considered high quality.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Assessment of trauma and PTSD symptoms and their relationship to the menstrual cycle is complicated by differences in when the trauma occurred and when it was assessed . One study looked at this specific issue in a large sample of women (n = 147) with various types of trauma, including motor vehicle accidents, falls, and nonsexual assaults. 141 Based on retrospective self-reports of their last menstrual periods, women who were in the mid-luteal phase at the time of the trauma (20% of the sample) or at the time of assessment (16% of the sample) reported experiencing significantly more frequent and severe flashbacks than women who experienced trauma in other cycle phases. This finding remained even after controlling for number of days in the hospital, injury severity, age, trauma type, and mild traumatic brain injury. In healthy populations, 142 women exposed to a distressing film during the early luteal phase were more likely to experience intrusive memories of the film in the days following than women who watched the film in the mid-follicular or late luteal phases (when progesterone levels are low). 143 Furthermore, the frequency of intrusions was negatively correlated with the estrogen-to-progesterone ratio, suggesting that estrogen may have protective effects and that both hormones may be important for encoding distressing memories. Similar results have been demonstrated in other intrusive-memory paradigms. 144 In the luteal phase, when the estrogen-to-progesterone ratio is lower than in the follicular phase, women may experience more intrusive memories and impaired fear inhibition. 2

Laboratory assessment of fear also sheds light on biomarkers of PTSD. Prepulse inhibition is a neurobiological process typically assessed through a startle-response paradigm. A weaker version of the stimulus (prepulse) is administered prior to a startle stimulus (pulse), which results in a decreased startle response compared to when no prepulse is administered. This paradigm aims to measure the brain’s ability to effectively filter interruptions (i.e., the startle stimulus) from ongoing processing of the prepulse stimulus. 214 Pineles and colleagues 146 examined prepulse inhibition in women with PTSD and trauma-exposed women without PTSD in the early follicular and mid-luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. Although group differences were found, there were no main effects or interactions with menstrual cycle phase, estradiol, or progesterone levels, suggesting that menstrual cycle phase was not associated with prepulse inhibition. The authors suggest that these null results may indicate that prepulse inhibition evokes early stages of information processing that may not be influenced by the menstrual cycle. Other studies comparing women with PTSD to trauma-exposed women without PTSD found that deficits in extinction learning (i.e., learning such that a stimulus previously associated with a shock is no longer associated with the shock) were present in the mid-luteal phase but only for women with PTSD. 147 , 150 A possible explanation for this deficit is that estrogen, which is lower in the luteal than late follicular phase, may be important for higher-order processes such as extinction learning. Relatedly, it is possible that women with PTSD have deficits in the conversion of progesterone, which is typically higher in the luteal phase, to the GABAergic neurosteroid allopregnanolone, which affects differential fear conditioning and extinction. 148 Although GABA plasma levels appear to be positively correlated with PTSD symptoms in women with PTSD compared to trauma-exposed healthy controls, menstrual cycle phase was not related to GABA levels in either group, according to a recent study. 151

The course of other symptoms of PTSD across the menstrual cycle is not entirely clear. Anxiety sensitivity (i.e., fear of the physical symptoms of anxiety), for example, appears to be stable across the menstrual cycle in women with and without PTSD. 149 However, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, and phobic anxiety are significantly higher in women with PTSD than in those without. 145 Women with PTSD report more phobic anxiety in the early follicular phase compared to the mid-luteal phase, and women without PTSD report no changes across the menstrual cycle. 145

Three studies met our established criteria for high-quality evidence, and all of these explored intrusive memories in healthy women. The data suggest that intrusive memories are more frequent in the luteal phase and when estradiol levels are low.

Eating Disorders

Much research examining eating disorders across the menstrual cycle focuses on binge eating rather than caloric restriction or compensatory behaviors (e.g., purging). As such, results presented in this review surround emotional and binge eating. Research examining emotional or binge eating appears to indicate consistent cyclic effects (see Fowler et al. 164 and Leon et al. 152 ). In both clinical and community-based studies of women diagnosed with bulimia nervosa, significant increases in binge eating were reported during the mid-luteal and premenstrual phases. 153 – 155 , 159 Similar results were noted in community samples of women without diagnosed eating disorders. 157 , 158 , 160 – 162 In a convenience sample of 148 women (84% White), naturally cycling women (n = 67) reported increased hunger during the menstrual phase and increased food cravings and amount of food eaten during both the premenstrual and menstrual phases. 158 Women using hormonal contraceptives (n = 81) demonstrated the same pattern with the addition of increased hunger during the premenstrual phase.

To better understand the biological underpinnings of these fluctuations, researchers investigated associations among progesterone, estradiol, and eating behaviors. In a sample of nine women with bulimia nervosa and eight healthy controls (82.4% White), Edler and colleagues 155 found significant negative associations between binge eating and estradiol, and significant positive associations between binge eating and progesterone. Similarly, Baker and colleagues 163 reported that, when women had low progesterone levels, an inverse relationship between estradiol and body dissatisfaction emerged. When progesterone levels were high, however, positive relationships among estradiol, body dissatisfaction, and binge eating emerged.

Data from the three high-quality studies do not reflect a consistent pattern, with two studies reporting no direct hormonal associations, and one study reporting positive associations, among emotional eating, progesterone, and estradiol.

Borderline Personality Disorder

BPD is characterized by intense and frequent emotional dysregulation, often resulting in anger and aggressive behavior toward others. Individuals with BPD are highly sensitive to criticism and may experience intense mood fluctuations throughout a day. However, few studies examined the role of the menstrual cycle or ovarian hormones in BPD symptoms. In a convenience sample of 226 undergraduate women, researchers found that women using oral contraceptives endorsed significantly more BPD symptoms on a self-report questionnaire. 165 Moreover, the phase of the menstrual cycle when estrogen was rising (days 5 to 10; mid- to late-follicular phase) was associated with more symptoms than those in a low-estrogen phase (days 0 to 3 and 26 to 29). This association was confirmed in a second study reported in the same article that measured salivary estradiol and found a significant positive relationship between rising, but not absolute, estrogen levels and BPD symptoms.

Subsequent studies sought to better understand the relationship between estrogen-to-progesterone ratios and key symptoms. One study found that within-person higher-than-average progesterone levels and lower-than-average estrogen levels predicted increased symptoms for women with high baseline BPD symptoms. 166 In another study of women with BPD, symptoms were generally worse in the perimenstrual phase than mid-luteal, ovulatory, and follicular phases. High-arousal symptoms (e.g., anger) returned to baseline, however, in the early follicular phase (i.e., when estrogen levels are low), whereas low-arousal symptoms (e.g., depression) persisted until ovulation (i.e., when estrogen levels are high). 167 In this same sample, anger/irritability was highest in the perimenstrual phase, with reactive aggression highest in the mid-luteal phase and proactive aggression highest during ovulation and lowest perimenstrually. 168

Two high-quality studies of BPD symptoms in healthy women suggest that BPD symptoms may change as a function of variability in estradiol and progesterone, as opposed to being associated with absolute ovarian hormone levels.

Substance Use Disorders I: Alcohol Use

The literature assessing the relationship between alcohol use and the menstrual cycle is mixed. 169 – 171 In a 2015 meta-analysis, Carroll and colleagues 12 found that 7 of the 13 identified articles reported increased drinking during the premenstrual phase, one reported decreased drinking during the premenstrual phase, and five reported no significant menstrual cycle effects. More recent research suggests that drinking may indeed fluctuate across the menstrual cycle, and this may be linked with progesterone-to-estradiol ratios. In a study by Joyce and colleagues, 173 94 naturally cycling women (76.6% White) documented the quantity of alcohol consumed and reasons for drinking across a full menstrual cycle. Women reported slight increases in drinking during the premenstrual and menstrual phases, and motivations related to coping were significantly associated with these increases (see also Hayaki et al. 174 ). Similarly, social motivations (e.g., “because [drinking] makes social gatherings more fun”) were associated with alcohol consumption around ovulation. 173 These findings align with Martel and colleagues’ work 172 demonstrating increases in drinking and binge drinking during the premenstrual phase and ovulation. High levels of estradiol predicted alcohol consumption, and these effects increased when progesterone was low and decreased when progesterone was high. Mood may also moderate these effects. Research shows that, when progesterone is low, women are more likely to drink when their mood is negative and that, when progesterone is high, women are more likely to drink when their mood is positive. 175 Taken together, recent research has elucidated that menstrual cycle effects may be moderated by positive or negative affect.

The two high-quality studies reported relatively consistent findings. When progesterone is low in the premenstrual and menstrual phases, alcohol consumption appears to be associated with negative mood. Around ovulation and when progesterone rises, alcohol consumption appears to be associated with positive mood.

Substance Use Disorders II: Smoking

Studies have examined menstrual cycle effects on ad lib smoking (i.e., smoking at will), subjective effects of nicotine, cravings, withdrawal symptoms, and smoking cessation. We found no consistent pattern for ad lib smoking, with studies documenting no cyclic effect, 187 increased smoking during the luteal phase, 179 , 184 or increased smoking during menstruation. 176 In a study by Schiller and colleagues, 183 98 female smokers (79% White) attended two laboratory sessions spaced two weeks apart, during which they smoked ad lib for one hour. Researchers found that women’s progesterone-to-estradiol ratios were negatively associated with smoking behavior; women with lower levels of progesterone compared to estradiol smoked more. The authors proposed that these relative levels may partly explain inconsistencies in the extant literature, as relative amounts of these hormones may be an important factor in menstrual cycle–related smoking behavior.

Progesterone may also diminish subjective effects of nicotine. 185 In a study by Goletiani and colleagues, 186 23 naturally cycling female smokers rated the subjective effects of cigarettes throughout two-hour ad lib smoking sessions twice during their menstrual cycles. No phasic effects were found on subjective effects of cigarettes. However, when data collected during the luteal phase were grouped based on progesterone levels, researchers found that women with high levels of progesterone reported significantly lower subjective effects. Similar findings show the effects of progesterone on reducing cravings. 181 , 188 , 189 , 215

Conversely, symptoms of nicotine withdrawal appear to be highest during the luteal phase. 177 , 178 This increase may be related to premenstrual symptoms, which are greater during the luteal phase and include symptoms like those of nicotine withdrawal (e.g., fatigue, headache, anxiety; see Weinberger et al. 216 ). It is unclear whether this is related to the effectiveness of smoking cessation (e.g., quit attempts); however, while the research is limited, there are studies that indicate superior outcomes for smoking cessation initiated during both the luteal 182 and follicular 180 phases. These studies are also limited as they vary regarding whether cessation is assisted by pharmacotherapies such as nicotine replacement, bupropion, or varenicline. Given the negative correlation between progesterone-to-estradiol ratios and smoking behavior, 183 quit attempts made during the follicular phase may be more successful.

Seven studies assessing smoking behavior across the menstrual cycle were considered high quality. Overall, these studies suggest that cravings and affective responses to nicotine are lower in the luteal phase, when progesterone levels are relatively high, compared to the follicular phase, when progesterone levels are relatively low.

Substance Use Disorders III: Cocaine Use

Like menstrual effects on nicotine use, research indicates an attenuation of subjective effects of smoked cocaine when progesterone levels are high (see Collins et al. 193 and Reed et al. 194 ). Sofuoglu and colleagues 190 reported that women (n = 21) had lower ratings of feeling “high” and “stimulated” during the luteal phase than the follicular phase. Evans and colleagues 191 similarly reported that, although women (n = 11; 91% African American) reported greater desire for cocaine during the luteal phase, their ratings of drug effects such as feeling “high,” “stimulated,” “alert,” and “self-confident” were significantly reduced compared to ratings in the follicular phase. Evans and colleagues 192 later examined subjective responses to smoked cocaine in 11 naturally cycling women (91% African American) during the follicular phase, luteal phase, and follicular phase with exogenous progesterone administration. Ten men served as a control group. Subjective effects of cocaine were significantly lower during the luteal phase and when the follicular phase was supplemented with exogenous progesterone compared to the follicular phase and men’s responses. No differences were found between follicular phase responses and men’s responses, which continues to suggest that progesterone modulates subjective responses to smoked cocaine.

To assess the potential role of allopregnanolone, a progesterone metabolite, on cocaine cravings, Milivojevic and associates 195 randomized 46 cocaine-dependent men and women (n’s of 29 and 17, respectively; 73.9% African American) to receive either a progesterone supplement or placebo, and measured blood concentrations of allopregnanolone and self-reported cravings. They found that, through increases in allopregnanolone, those who received progesterone supplementation reported significantly lower cravings than those who received placebo.

No study in this section met our criteria for being of high quality.

Miscellaneous Disorders

We found only one study relating to symptom fluctuation in a woman with kleptomania. 217 The authors did not formally test her symptoms during different cycle phases, but the patient reported experiencing intensified urges to steal during the luteal phase. We felt that the data from this single case study were not sufficient to justify inclusion in the review. There were no studies available for body dysmorphic disorder, excoriation, hoarding, intermittent explosive disorder, conduct disorder, or pyromania.

The aim of this comprehensive review is to describe the findings of previous research examining psychiatric symptom variability across the menstrual cycle. Each study included (1) a comparison of at least two menstrual cycle phases, (2) data not derived from evaluation of an intervention, and (3) premenopausal women, age 18 years or older. Across psychiatric diagnoses, we saw evidence of symptom exacerbation primarily in the luteal, premenstrual, and menstrual phases.

Evidence of Potential Mechanisms Involved in Symptom Fluctuation

Several studies included in this review examined possible mechanisms that may underlie menstrual-related changes in symptoms. Regarding depression, for example, the literature indicates that both healthy women and women with a depressive disorder experience perimenstrual increase of depressive symptoms. However, data exploring potential mechanisms are not as clear. fMRI studies examining functional brain changes show inconsistent results. 218 , 219 Similarly, estradiol may help regulate stress for healthy women but not for women who have experienced clinical depression, 72 suggesting that even a history of depression could make women vulnerable to increased perimenstrual mood changes. 61 These data highlight the complexities of determining how depression changes over the course of the menstrual cycle and whether these processes may be different between healthy and clinical populations, perhaps suggesting the need for different treatment approaches. 220 , 221

Ovarian Hormone Mechanisms

Several studies hypothesized a specific link between ovarian hormones and symptom fluctuation. Regarding substance use, the decrease in cravings in the luteal phase may be due, in part, to increases in allopregnanolone, a progesterone-derived neuroactive steroid. Allopregnanolone produces anxiolytic and hypnotic effects via increased GABA potentiation (see Lambert et al. 21 for a review), which could lessen the subjective effects (e.g., reportedly feeling “high,” “stimulated”) of substances such as cocaine. High levels of progesterone in the mid-luteal phase are also associated with release of glucocorticoids, which help consolidate memories, potentially increasing susceptibility to developing PTSD. 18 , 141 Once symptoms of PTSD have developed, reductions in the conversion of progesterone to allopregnanolone and pregnanolone can further impair learning of new, non-fearful associations. 150 These and other studies have led to the hypothesis that allopregnanolone-to-progesterone ratios may be better biomarkers for psychiatric symptoms, as decreases in this ratio from the follicular to luteal phases are evident despite increases in absolute levels across the menstrual cycle. 222 Impairments in allopregnanolone synthesis may further impair GABAergic function and leave some women at risk for psychiatric disorders, 20 , 22 although this causal link has not yet been clearly demonstrated.

Additionally, according to the estrogen hypothesis, estrogen is protective against psychosis (see Reilly et al. 15 for a review). Reductions in estrogen can facilitate or exacerbate psychosis—which is exemplified by the increased risk of psychosis in postmenopausal and postpartum periods. It is therefore consistent with these data that increases in psychotic experiences tend to occur as estrogen levels decline throughout the premenstrual phase.

Regarding cyclic effects on emotional and binge eating, there are likely both hormonal and genetic underpinnings of these behaviors. The pattern of decreased food intake during the first half of the menstrual cycle and increased food intake during the second half of the menstrual cycle is observed in many mammalian species (see Schneider et al. 223 for a review). From an evolutionary standpoint, it is theorized that this pattern allows for a shift in motivational priorities from reproduction to eating. During the first half of the menstrual cycle, motivational priorities surround increasing sexual desire as ovulation approaches. As the likelihood of conception decreases the further from ovulation a woman is in her cycle, motivational priorities shift toward eating. 223 One hypothesis is that a gene × hormone effect could exaggerate this process in women who have binge-eating behavior. 161 For example, an individual who is genetically vulnerable to binge eating may experience increased activation by certain concentrations of estradiol and progesterone during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle compared to someone without this genetic predisposition.

Finally, the ratio between progesterone and estradiol appears to play an important role in symptom expression, though not in a consistent direction. Lower levels of progesterone coupled with higher levels of estradiol, for example, have been associated with increased smoking, 183 alcohol consumption, 172 and body dissatisfaction. 163 Conversely, higher levels of progesterone compared to estradiol has been associated with increases in intrusive memories in the context of PTSD. 143

Although we did not examine reproductive mood disorders (e.g., premenstrual dysphoric disorder, postpartum depression, perimenopausal depression) specifically, the literature in these areas suggests that there is a large amount of individual variability in mood sensitivity to ovarian hormones. 201 , 224 – 226 Indeed, it is likely that a minority of women exhibit psychological sensitivity to ovarian hormones across the menstrual cycle and that collapsing participant data into groups may mask this variability. As such, researchers are encouraged to assess for subgroups when analyzing menstrual cycle data.

It is also possible that psychiatric symptoms may be a delayed response to hormonal changes and may therefore not reflect the hormonal phase when the symptoms arise. For example, symptoms that have onset in the luteal phase may be in response to increases in estradiol or progesterone, and symptoms in the early follicular phase may be a response to hormone withdrawal. Indeed, research suggests that some symptoms may peak several weeks following exogenous hormonal manipulation. 201 Schmidt and colleagues 226 argue that menstrual cycle studies may not be able to accurately tease apart the effect of hormonal changes versus absolute hormone levels on psychiatric symptoms, and they encourages the use of hormonal manipulation to address this possible limitation.

Results from High-Quality Studies

Overall, a paucity of studies met our criteria to be considered of high quality. Of the 16 areas examined, three (GAD, trichotillomania, and cocaine use) had no high-quality studies, and three (psychosis, bipolar disorders, and OCD) each had one high-quality study. As such, no strong conclusions can be made for these psychiatric disorders/symptoms. It is recommended that future research continue to explore the presentation of these psychiatric disorders/symptoms across the menstrual cycle. Furthermore, researchers are encouraged to use the flexible design recommendations made by Schmalenberger and colleagues 227 (e.g., using within-subjects designs, incorporating ovulation predictor testing) to enhance study quality and validity of results.

Social anxiety disorder, PTSD, alcohol use, and smoking each had two to three high-quality studies demonstrating relatively consistent results. For social anxiety disorder and PTSD, it appears as though symptoms may worsen in the luteal phase (e.g., greater interpersonal anxiety, more frequent intrusive memories). Alcohol use across the menstrual cycle appears to be influenced by mood such that alcohol use is associated with negative mood in the premenstrual and menstrual phases and is associated with positive mood around ovulation. Regarding smoking, cravings appear to be lower in the luteal phase than in the follicular phase. This may help to explain why quit attempts appear to be more successful when made during the follicular phase: if women experience a reduction in cravings in the luteal phase following quit attempts made during the follicular phase, women may be able to sustain these attempts for a longer period. 178 Cumulatively, these results provide a preliminary understanding of the effect of the menstrual cycle on these symptoms, and more high-quality research within each area is needed.

Results from the two to three high-quality studies for each of the following diagnoses—panic disorder, eating disorders, and BPD—were unclear or inconsistent, and more research is needed to determine the effect of the menstrual cycle on these disorders. We identified 7 high-quality studies examining depression and 14 examining anxiety/stress. Similarly, results from these areas were unclear or inconsistent. Given that the studies in these two areas yielded inconsistent results, it may be that the menstrual cycle has no consistent effects on symptom expression in these areas, although a history of depression or higher levels of baseline depression or anxiety may be a risk factor for menstrual cycle–related exacerbation of symptoms. Alternatively, it may be that the ways in which any menstrual cycle effect is expressed are nuanced and possibly masked by the varying populations and study designs in these studies. Future research aimed at replicating study designs used in these high-quality studies would help elucidate any true menstrual cycle effects.

Research on suicide/suicide attempts was the only area sufficiently studied, with 11 studies meeting criteria to be considered high-quality and yielding consistent results. Overall, results from these studies indicate that rates of suicide/suicide attempts are highest during menstruation.

Limitations

Overall, the data on psychiatric symptoms across the menstrual cycle are limited because of the lack of prospective studies of women with a range of psychiatric disorders in which standardized assessment of the menstrual cycle is collected. This limits our understanding and knowledge of these phenomena, including the implications for specific disorders and the investigation of underlying mechanisms. Varied definitions and assessment of menstrual cycle phases, as well as a lack of standardized assessments of the menstrual cycle—including biological assays of estrogen, estradiol, allopregnanolone, and progesterone, along with their relative ratios, on and off oral contraceptives—all limit existing information. Inconsistencies in the literature may also result from individual variation (see Kiesner 69 for a review). In addition, studies vary in standardization of symptoms for specific psychiatric disorders, further limiting assessment of the existing data.

Varied definitions and assessment of menstrual cycle phases

Menstrual cycle phases are termed and calculated differently across research groups, which may mask or inflate true symptom variability. For example, some researchers define ovulation as a distinct phase or window of days, 174 and others include ovulation as a part of the luteal phase. 164 Assessment of cycle phase is further complicated when comparing studies using hormonal measures and those employing self-reports. Assessing menstrual phases through self-reported days since menstruation is complicated by the known variability in the length of menstrual cycle phases. 196 As such, 16 days since menstruation could, for example, fall during the luteal phase for one woman, coincide with ovulation for another, and, in the case of short luteal phase disorder, fall during the follicular phase for yet another woman.

Lack of standardized assessment of symptoms

Across multiple disorders, symptom assessment is inconsistent. In some studies, researchers employ self-reports, others use behavioral tasks, and still others use observations. These inconsistencies could complicate findings as research indicates there are discrepancies across some forms of symptom assessment. 228 Additionally, psychiatric disorders are comprised of constellations of symptoms, all of which may change independently throughout the menstrual cycle. Laboratory paradigms use tasks as proxies for stressors or psychophysiological measures. Taken together, these factors create a highly complex and nuanced picture that can be hard to interpret. Just as one example, in BPD, high- and low-arousal symptoms are each affected separately by the menstrual cycle; teasing apart arousal symptoms may shed additional light on cycle-related and hormonal relationships. 229 Across disorders, better understanding these relationships may help inform treatment options or guidance. 230 , 231

Sampling biases

With few exceptions, 191 , 192 , 195 most studies reviewed either included samples of primarily White women or did not provide information on participants’ racial and ethnic backgrounds. Given the failure to include this information and the general lack of representation of racial and ethnic minority groups, the generalizability of these findings is an open question. Women from underrepresented groups may experience symptom changes differently, either because of the experience of different acute or chronic stressors (e.g., racial trauma) or because of varying cultural interpretations of symptoms or menstruation.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The existing literature demonstrates that menstrual-related exacerbation of psychiatric symptoms occurs most commonly during the premenstrual and menstrual phases, and that, for some symptoms, progesterone-to-estradiol ratios play important roles in this relationship. Effective treatment for women with psychiatric disorders will require an understanding of the role of ovarian hormones and other neuroactive steroids such as allopregnanolone but perhaps others as well. 13 To further elucidate the role of ovarian hormones in psychiatric symptom expression, researchers are encouraged to employ prospective designs and incorporate hormone assays in their relevant research, as research has found that retrospective 140 and self-reported 232 assessments of the menstrual cycle are less accurate, which may obfuscate potential findings. Given the mixed findings on the influence of oral contraceptives on mood symptoms, 73 , 75 as well as research indicating the likely importance of progesterone-to-estrogen ratios, researchers are also encouraged to further assess the effects of various types of oral contraceptives (e.g., androgenic vs. antiandrogenic; high vs. low doses of ethinylestradiol) on psychiatric symptoms. These findings would better highlight the roles of progesterone and estrogen in women’s mental health, and also possibly identify oral contraceptives that may assist in symptom stabilization. Furthermore, given the lack of diversity in the included samples, future research should focus on women from racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds to assess the generalizability of these results. Clinicians should also be routinely assessing symptom variability across the menstrual cycle in their patients. The ability to predict worsening of symptoms allows clients to better prepare and utilize effective coping strategies to help manage emotional changes. Clinicians are further encouraged to assess other factors that influence ovarian hormone expression, such as pregnancy status and hormonal contraceptive use.

Declaration of interest

The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the article.

Original manuscript received 9 August 2021; revised manuscript received 19 November 2021, accepted for publication 12 December 2021.

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    According to the University of Adelaide, there are two major types of abstracts written for research purposes. First, we have informative abstracts and descriptive abstracts. 1. Informative Abstract. An informative abstract is the more common type of abstract written for academic research.

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