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Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

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Research Report

Research Report

Definition:

Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of the research to the intended audience, which could be other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public.

Components of Research Report

Components of Research Report are as follows:

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the research report and provides a brief overview of the research question or problem being investigated. It should include a clear statement of the purpose of the study and its significance or relevance to the field of research. It may also provide background information or a literature review to help contextualize the research.

Literature Review

The literature review provides a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing research and scholarship relevant to the research question or problem. It should identify the gaps, inconsistencies, and contradictions in the literature and show how the current study addresses these issues. The literature review also establishes the theoretical framework or conceptual model that guides the research.

Methodology

The methodology section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used to collect and analyze data. It should include information on the sample or participants, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques. The methodology should be clear and detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and objective manner. It should provide a detailed description of the data and statistics used to answer the research question or test the hypothesis. Tables, graphs, and figures may be included to help visualize the data and illustrate the key findings.

The discussion section interprets the results of the study and explains their significance or relevance to the research question or problem. It should also compare the current findings with those of previous studies and identify the implications for future research or practice. The discussion should be based on the results presented in the previous section and should avoid speculation or unfounded conclusions.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the study and restates the main argument or thesis presented in the introduction. It should also provide a brief overview of the contributions of the study to the field of research and the implications for practice or policy.

The references section lists all the sources cited in the research report, following a specific citation style, such as APA or MLA.

The appendices section includes any additional material, such as data tables, figures, or instruments used in the study, that could not be included in the main text due to space limitations.

Types of Research Report

Types of Research Report are as follows:

Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also be written by researchers or scholars in other fields.

Research Paper

Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a document that presents the results of a research study or investigation. Research papers can be written in a variety of fields, including science, social science, humanities, and business. They typically follow a standard format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.

Technical Report

A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a specific technical or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are often used in engineering, science, and other technical fields to document research and development work.

Progress Report

A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research project or program over a specific period of time. Progress reports are typically used to communicate the status of a project to stakeholders, funders, or project managers.

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan, providing an analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated with the project. Feasibility reports are often used in business, engineering, and other fields to determine the viability of a project before it is undertaken.

Field Report

A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which is research conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports are often used in anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural sciences.

Experimental Report

An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment, including the hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental reports are often used in biology, chemistry, and other sciences to communicate the results of laboratory experiments.

Case Study Report

A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or situation, often used in psychology, social work, and other fields to document and understand complex cases or phenomena.

Literature Review Report

A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research on a specific topic, providing an overview of the current state of knowledge on the subject. Literature review reports are often used in social sciences, education, and other fields to identify gaps in the literature and guide future research.

Research Report Example

Following is a Research Report Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance among High School Students

This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students. The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The findings indicate that there is a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students. The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers, as they highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities.

Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of the lives of high school students. With the widespread use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, students can connect with friends, share photos and videos, and engage in discussions on a range of topics. While social media offers many benefits, concerns have been raised about its impact on academic performance. Many studies have found a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance among high school students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012).

Given the growing importance of social media in the lives of high school students, it is important to investigate its impact on academic performance. This study aims to address this gap by examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students.

Methodology:

The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The questionnaire was developed based on previous studies and was designed to measure the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as academic performance.

The participants were selected using a convenience sampling technique, and the survey questionnaire was distributed in the classroom during regular school hours. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis.

The findings indicate that the majority of high school students use social media platforms on a daily basis, with Facebook being the most popular platform. The results also show a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students.

Discussion:

The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. The negative correlation between social media use and academic performance suggests that strategies should be put in place to help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. For example, educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the negative impact of social media on academic performance among high school students. The findings highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. Further research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms by which social media use affects academic performance and to develop effective strategies for addressing this issue.

Limitations:

One limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Future studies should use random sampling techniques to increase the representativeness of the sample. Another limitation is the use of self-reported measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias. Future studies could use objective measures of social media use and academic performance, such as tracking software and school records.

Implications:

The findings of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. Educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. For example, teachers could use social media platforms to share relevant educational resources and facilitate online discussions. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. They could also engage in open communication with their children to understand their social media use and its impact on their academic performance. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students. For example, schools could implement social media policies that restrict access during class time and encourage responsible use.

References:

  • Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237-1245.
  • Paul, J. A., Baker, H. M., & Cochran, J. D. (2012). Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 8(1), 1-19.
  • Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 652-657.
  • Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.

Note*: Above mention, Example is just a sample for the students’ guide. Do not directly copy and paste as your College or University assignment. Kindly do some research and Write your own.

Applications of Research Report

Research reports have many applications, including:

  • Communicating research findings: The primary application of a research report is to communicate the results of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public. The report serves as a way to share new knowledge, insights, and discoveries with others in the field.
  • Informing policy and practice : Research reports can inform policy and practice by providing evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers. For example, a research report on the effectiveness of a new drug could inform regulatory agencies in their decision-making process.
  • Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research in a particular area. Other researchers may use the findings and methodology of a report to develop new research questions or to build on existing research.
  • Evaluating programs and interventions : Research reports can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and interventions in achieving their intended outcomes. For example, a research report on a new educational program could provide evidence of its impact on student performance.
  • Demonstrating impact : Research reports can be used to demonstrate the impact of research funding or to evaluate the success of research projects. By presenting the findings and outcomes of a study, research reports can show the value of research to funders and stakeholders.
  • Enhancing professional development : Research reports can be used to enhance professional development by providing a source of information and learning for researchers and practitioners in a particular field. For example, a research report on a new teaching methodology could provide insights and ideas for educators to incorporate into their own practice.

How to write Research Report

Here are some steps you can follow to write a research report:

  • Identify the research question: The first step in writing a research report is to identify your research question. This will help you focus your research and organize your findings.
  • Conduct research : Once you have identified your research question, you will need to conduct research to gather relevant data and information. This can involve conducting experiments, reviewing literature, or analyzing data.
  • Organize your findings: Once you have gathered all of your data, you will need to organize your findings in a way that is clear and understandable. This can involve creating tables, graphs, or charts to illustrate your results.
  • Write the report: Once you have organized your findings, you can begin writing the report. Start with an introduction that provides background information and explains the purpose of your research. Next, provide a detailed description of your research methods and findings. Finally, summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your findings.
  • Proofread and edit: After you have written your report, be sure to proofread and edit it carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and make sure that your report is well-organized and easy to read.
  • Include a reference list: Be sure to include a list of references that you used in your research. This will give credit to your sources and allow readers to further explore the topic if they choose.
  • Format your report: Finally, format your report according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or organization. This may include formatting requirements for headings, margins, fonts, and spacing.

Purpose of Research Report

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a specific audience, such as peers in the same field, stakeholders, or the general public. The report provides a detailed description of the research methods, findings, and conclusions.

Some common purposes of a research report include:

  • Sharing knowledge: A research report allows researchers to share their findings and knowledge with others in their field. This helps to advance the field and improve the understanding of a particular topic.
  • Identifying trends: A research report can identify trends and patterns in data, which can help guide future research and inform decision-making.
  • Addressing problems: A research report can provide insights into problems or issues and suggest solutions or recommendations for addressing them.
  • Evaluating programs or interventions : A research report can evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions, which can inform decision-making about whether to continue, modify, or discontinue them.
  • Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies.

When to Write Research Report

A research report should be written after completing the research study. This includes collecting data, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Once the research is complete, the report should be written in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

In academic settings, research reports are often required as part of coursework or as part of a thesis or dissertation. In this case, the report should be written according to the guidelines provided by the instructor or institution.

In other settings, such as in industry or government, research reports may be required to inform decision-making or to comply with regulatory requirements. In these cases, the report should be written as soon as possible after the research is completed in order to inform decision-making in a timely manner.

Overall, the timing of when to write a research report depends on the purpose of the research, the expectations of the audience, and any regulatory requirements that need to be met. However, it is important to complete the report in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

Characteristics of Research Report

There are several characteristics of a research report that distinguish it from other types of writing. These characteristics include:

  • Objective: A research report should be written in an objective and unbiased manner. It should present the facts and findings of the research study without any personal opinions or biases.
  • Systematic: A research report should be written in a systematic manner. It should follow a clear and logical structure, and the information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
  • Detailed: A research report should be detailed and comprehensive. It should provide a thorough description of the research methods, results, and conclusions.
  • Accurate : A research report should be accurate and based on sound research methods. The findings and conclusions should be supported by data and evidence.
  • Organized: A research report should be well-organized. It should include headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate the report and understand the main points.
  • Clear and concise: A research report should be written in clear and concise language. The information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand, and unnecessary jargon should be avoided.
  • Citations and references: A research report should include citations and references to support the findings and conclusions. This helps to give credit to other researchers and to provide readers with the opportunity to further explore the topic.

Advantages of Research Report

Research reports have several advantages, including:

  • Communicating research findings: Research reports allow researchers to communicate their findings to a wider audience, including other researchers, stakeholders, and the general public. This helps to disseminate knowledge and advance the understanding of a particular topic.
  • Providing evidence for decision-making : Research reports can provide evidence to inform decision-making, such as in the case of policy-making, program planning, or product development. The findings and conclusions can help guide decisions and improve outcomes.
  • Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research on a particular topic. Other researchers can build on the findings and conclusions of the report, which can lead to further discoveries and advancements in the field.
  • Demonstrating expertise: Research reports can demonstrate the expertise of the researchers and their ability to conduct rigorous and high-quality research. This can be important for securing funding, promotions, and other professional opportunities.
  • Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies. Producing a high-quality research report can help ensure compliance with these requirements.

Limitations of Research Report

Despite their advantages, research reports also have some limitations, including:

  • Time-consuming: Conducting research and writing a report can be a time-consuming process, particularly for large-scale studies. This can limit the frequency and speed of producing research reports.
  • Expensive: Conducting research and producing a report can be expensive, particularly for studies that require specialized equipment, personnel, or data. This can limit the scope and feasibility of some research studies.
  • Limited generalizability: Research studies often focus on a specific population or context, which can limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or contexts.
  • Potential bias : Researchers may have biases or conflicts of interest that can influence the findings and conclusions of the research study. Additionally, participants may also have biases or may not be representative of the larger population, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
  • Accessibility: Research reports may be written in technical or academic language, which can limit their accessibility to a wider audience. Additionally, some research may be behind paywalls or require specialized access, which can limit the ability of others to read and use the findings.

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  • Research Report: Definition, Types + [Writing Guide]

busayo.longe

One of the reasons for carrying out research is to add to the existing body of knowledge. Therefore, when conducting research, you need to document your processes and findings in a research report. 

With a research report, it is easy to outline the findings of your systematic investigation and any gaps needing further inquiry. Knowing how to create a detailed research report will prove useful when you need to conduct research.  

What is a Research Report?

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.

In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-written research report should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas of the research process.

Features of a Research Report 

So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are some of the basic features that define a research report. 

  • It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually includes tables and graphs. 
  • It is written in a formal language.
  • A research report is usually written in the third person.
  • It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.
  • It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.
  • It always includes recommendations for future actions. 

Types of Research Report 

The research report is classified based on two things; nature of research and target audience.

Nature of Research

  • Qualitative Research Report

This is the type of report written for qualitative research . It outlines the methods, processes, and findings of a qualitative method of systematic investigation. In educational research, a qualitative research report provides an opportunity for one to apply his or her knowledge and develop skills in planning and executing qualitative research projects.

A qualitative research report is usually descriptive in nature. Hence, in addition to presenting details of the research process, you must also create a descriptive narrative of the information.

  • Quantitative Research Report

A quantitative research report is a type of research report that is written for quantitative research. Quantitative research is a type of systematic investigation that pays attention to numerical or statistical values in a bid to find answers to research questions. 

In this type of research report, the researcher presents quantitative data to support the research process and findings. Unlike a qualitative research report that is mainly descriptive, a quantitative research report works with numbers; that is, it is numerical in nature. 

Target Audience

Also, a research report can be said to be technical or popular based on the target audience. If you’re dealing with a general audience, you would need to present a popular research report, and if you’re dealing with a specialized audience, you would submit a technical report. 

  • Technical Research Report

A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-based research. This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical audience; that is, individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of study. 

In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific information about the research process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of language is highly specialized and filled with jargon. 

Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical research reports. 

  • Popular Research Report

A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not necessarily have any knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make information accessible to everyone. 

It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to understand the findings and recommendations. Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in newspapers and magazines. 

Importance of a Research Report 

  • Knowledge Transfer: As already stated above, one of the reasons for carrying out research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, and this is made possible with a research report. A research report serves as a means to effectively communicate the findings of a systematic investigation to all and sundry.  
  • Identification of Knowledge Gaps: With a research report, you’d be able to identify knowledge gaps for further inquiry. A research report shows what has been done while hinting at other areas needing systematic investigation. 
  • In market research, a research report would help you understand the market needs and peculiarities at a glance. 
  • A research report allows you to present information in a precise and concise manner. 
  • It is time-efficient and practical because, in a research report, you do not have to spend time detailing the findings of your research work in person. You can easily send out the report via email and have stakeholders look at it. 

Guide to Writing a Research Report

A lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the different requirements would help you create the ideal research report. A research report is usually broken down into multiple sections, which allows for a concise presentation of information.

Structure and Example of a Research Report

This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point to the aims, objectives, and findings of a research report. 

  • Table of Contents

This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report.

An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research including the research method, data collection process, and research findings. Think of an abstract as a summary of your research report that presents pertinent information in a concise manner. 

An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the point. The focus of your research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What, Where, Why, When, Who and How. 

  • Introduction

Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation as well as the problem which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When writing the report introduction, it is also essential to indicate whether the purposes of the research were achieved or would require more work.

In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research problem and also outlines the significance of the systematic investigation. Also, the researcher is expected to outline any jargons and terminologies that are contained in the research.  

  • Literature Review

A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In other words, it is the section where you provide an overview and analysis of different research works that are relevant to your systematic investigation. 

It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further investigation, which your research has sought to fill. At this stage, you can also hint at your research hypothesis and its possible implications for the existing body of knowledge in your field of study. 

  • An Account of Investigation

This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample, and research subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the research process including the data collection and analysis procedures. 

In a quantitative research report, you’d need to provide information surveys, questionnaires and other quantitative data collection methods used in your research. In a qualitative research report, you are expected to describe the qualitative data collection methods used in your research including interviews and focus groups. 

In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation. 

This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you are expected to present a justification for each outcome and show whether the results are in line with your hypotheses or if other research studies have come up with similar results.

  • Conclusions

This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance of the entire study. 

  • References and Appendices

This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources. 

Tips for Writing a Research Report

  • Define the Context for the Report

As is obtainable when writing an essay, defining the context for your research report would help you create a detailed yet concise document. This is why you need to create an outline before writing so that you do not miss out on anything. 

  • Define your Audience

Writing with your audience in mind is essential as it determines the tone of the report. If you’re writing for a general audience, you would want to present the information in a simple and relatable manner. For a specialized audience, you would need to make use of technical and field-specific terms. 

  • Include Significant Findings

The idea of a research report is to present some sort of abridged version of your systematic investigation. In your report, you should exclude irrelevant information while highlighting only important data and findings. 

  • Include Illustrations

Your research report should include illustrations and other visual representations of your data. Graphs, pie charts, and relevant images lend additional credibility to your systematic investigation.

  • Choose the Right Title

A good research report title is brief, precise, and contains keywords from your research. It should provide a clear idea of your systematic investigation so that readers can grasp the entire focus of your research from the title. 

  • Proofread the Report

Before publishing the document, ensure that you give it a second look to authenticate the information. If you can, get someone else to go through the report, too, and you can also run it through proofreading and editing software. 

How to Gather Research Data for Your Report  

  • Understand the Problem

Every research aims at solving a specific problem or set of problems, and this should be at the back of your mind when writing your research report. Understanding the problem would help you to filter the information you have and include only important data in your report. 

  • Know what your report seeks to achieve

This is somewhat similar to the point above because, in some way, the aim of your research report is intertwined with the objectives of your systematic investigation. Identifying the primary purpose of writing a research report would help you to identify and present the required information accordingly. 

  • Identify your audience

Knowing your target audience plays a crucial role in data collection for a research report. If your research report is specifically for an organization, you would want to present industry-specific information or show how the research findings are relevant to the work that the company does. 

  • Create Surveys/Questionnaires

A survey is a research method that is used to gather data from a specific group of people through a set of questions. It can be either quantitative or qualitative. 

A survey is usually made up of structured questions, and it can be administered online or offline. However, an online survey is a more effective method of research data collection because it helps you save time and gather data with ease. 

You can seamlessly create an online questionnaire for your research on Formplus . With the multiple sharing options available in the builder, you would be able to administer your survey to respondents in little or no time. 

Formplus also has a report summary too l that you can use to create custom visual reports for your research.

Step-by-step guide on how to create an online questionnaire using Formplus  

  • Sign into Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create different online questionnaires for your research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on Create new form to begin. 

  • Edit Form Title : Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Research Questionnaire.”
  • Edit Form : Click on the edit icon to edit the form.
  • Add Fields : Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for questionnaires in the Formplus builder. 
  • Edit fields
  • Click on “Save”
  • Form Customization: With the form customization options in the form builder, you can easily change the outlook of your form and make it more unique and personalized. Formplus allows you to change your form theme, add background images, and even change the font according to your needs. 
  • Multiple Sharing Options: Formplus offers various form-sharing options, which enables you to share your questionnaire with respondents easily. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your organization’s social media pages.  You can also send out your survey form as email invitations to your research subjects too. If you wish, you can share your form’s QR code or embed it on your organization’s website for easy access. 

Conclusion  

Always remember that a research report is just as important as the actual systematic investigation because it plays a vital role in communicating research findings to everyone else. This is why you must take care to create a concise document summarizing the process of conducting any research. 

In this article, we’ve outlined essential tips to help you create a research report. When writing your report, you should always have the audience at the back of your mind, as this would set the tone for the document. 

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Home Market Research

Research Reports: Definition and How to Write Them

Research Reports

Reports are usually spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on communicating information about a particular topic and a niche target market. The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new strategies.

Certain events, facts, and other information based on incidents need to be relayed to the people in charge, and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective and conclusion. These reports should have a clean and structured format to relay information effectively.

What are Research Reports?

Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing the information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods .

A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research. It is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research.

The various sections of a research report are:

  • Background/Introduction
  • Implemented Methods
  • Results based on Analysis
  • Deliberation

Learn more: Quantitative Research

Components of Research Reports

Research is imperative for launching a new product/service or a new feature. The markets today are extremely volatile and competitive due to new entrants every day who may or may not provide effective products. An organization needs to make the right decisions at the right time to be relevant in such a market with updated products that suffice customer demands.

The details of a research report may change with the purpose of research but the main components of a report will remain constant. The research approach of the market researcher also influences the style of writing reports. Here are seven main components of a productive research report:

  • Research Report Summary: The entire objective along with the overview of research are to be included in a summary which is a couple of paragraphs in length. All the multiple components of the research are explained in brief under the report summary.  It should be interesting enough to capture all the key elements of the report.
  • Research Introduction: There always is a primary goal that the researcher is trying to achieve through a report. In the introduction section, he/she can cover answers related to this goal and establish a thesis which will be included to strive and answer it in detail.  This section should answer an integral question: “What is the current situation of the goal?”.  After the research design was conducted, did the organization conclude the goal successfully or they are still a work in progress –  provide such details in the introduction part of the research report.
  • Research Methodology: This is the most important section of the report where all the important information lies. The readers can gain data for the topic along with analyzing the quality of provided content and the research can also be approved by other market researchers . Thus, this section needs to be highly informative with each aspect of research discussed in detail.  Information needs to be expressed in chronological order according to its priority and importance. Researchers should include references in case they gained information from existing techniques.
  • Research Results: A short description of the results along with calculations conducted to achieve the goal will form this section of results. Usually, the exposition after data analysis is carried out in the discussion part of the report.

Learn more: Quantitative Data

  • Research Discussion: The results are discussed in extreme detail in this section along with a comparative analysis of reports that could probably exist in the same domain. Any abnormality uncovered during research will be deliberated in the discussion section.  While writing research reports, the researcher will have to connect the dots on how the results will be applicable in the real world.
  • Research References and Conclusion: Conclude all the research findings along with mentioning each and every author, article or any content piece from where references were taken.

Learn more: Qualitative Observation

15 Tips for Writing Research Reports

Writing research reports in the manner can lead to all the efforts going down the drain. Here are 15 tips for writing impactful research reports:

  • Prepare the context before starting to write and start from the basics:  This was always taught to us in school – be well-prepared before taking a plunge into new topics. The order of survey questions might not be the ideal or most effective order for writing research reports. The idea is to start with a broader topic and work towards a more specific one and focus on a conclusion or support, which a research should support with the facts.  The most difficult thing to do in reporting, without a doubt is to start. Start with the title, the introduction, then document the first discoveries and continue from that. Once the marketers have the information well documented, they can write a general conclusion.
  • Keep the target audience in mind while selecting a format that is clear, logical and obvious to them:  Will the research reports be presented to decision makers or other researchers? What are the general perceptions around that topic? This requires more care and diligence. A researcher will need a significant amount of information to start writing the research report. Be consistent with the wording, the numbering of the annexes and so on. Follow the approved format of the company for the delivery of research reports and demonstrate the integrity of the project with the objectives of the company.
  • Have a clear research objective: A researcher should read the entire proposal again, and make sure that the data they provide contributes to the objectives that were raised from the beginning. Remember that speculations are for conversations, not for research reports, if a researcher speculates, they directly question their own research.
  • Establish a working model:  Each study must have an internal logic, which will have to be established in the report and in the evidence. The researchers’ worst nightmare is to be required to write research reports and realize that key questions were not included.

Learn more: Quantitative Observation

  • Gather all the information about the research topic. Who are the competitors of our customers? Talk to other researchers who have studied the subject of research, know the language of the industry. Misuse of the terms can discourage the readers of research reports from reading further.
  • Read aloud while writing. While reading the report, if the researcher hears something inappropriate, for example, if they stumble over the words when reading them, surely the reader will too. If the researcher can’t put an idea in a single sentence, then it is very long and they must change it so that the idea is clear to everyone.
  • Check grammar and spelling. Without a doubt, good practices help to understand the report. Use verbs in the present tense. Consider using the present tense, which makes the results sound more immediate. Find new words and other ways of saying things. Have fun with the language whenever possible.
  • Discuss only the discoveries that are significant. If some data are not really significant, do not mention them. Remember that not everything is truly important or essential within research reports.

Learn more: Qualitative Data

  • Try and stick to the survey questions. For example, do not say that the people surveyed “were worried” about an research issue , when there are different degrees of concern.
  • The graphs must be clear enough so that they understand themselves. Do not let graphs lead the reader to make mistakes: give them a title, include the indications, the size of the sample, and the correct wording of the question.
  • Be clear with messages. A researcher should always write every section of the report with an accuracy of details and language.
  • Be creative with titles – Particularly in segmentation studies choose names “that give life to research”. Such names can survive for a long time after the initial investigation.
  • Create an effective conclusion: The conclusion in the research reports is the most difficult to write, but it is an incredible opportunity to excel. Make a precise summary. Sometimes it helps to start the conclusion with something specific, then it describes the most important part of the study, and finally, it provides the implications of the conclusions.
  • Get a couple more pair of eyes to read the report. Writers have trouble detecting their own mistakes. But they are responsible for what is presented. Ensure it has been approved by colleagues or friends before sending the find draft out.

Learn more: Market Research and Analysis

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Research Design in Business and Management pp 53–84 Cite as

Writing up a Research Report

  • Stefan Hunziker 3 &
  • Michael Blankenagel 3  
  • First Online: 04 January 2024

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A research report is one big argument about how and why you came up with your conclusions. To make it a convincing argument, a typical guiding structure has developed. In the different chapters, there are distinct issues that need to be addressed to explain to the reader why your conclusions are valid. The governing principle for writing the report is full disclosure: to explain everything and ensure replicability by another researcher.

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Field, A. (2020). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE.

Früh, M., Keimer, I., & Blankenagel, M. (2019). The impact of Balanced Scorecard excellence on shareholder returns. IFZ Working Paper No. 0003/2019. https://zenodo.org/record/2571603#.YMDUafkzZaQ . Accessed: 9 June 2021.

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What Is a Research Paper?

  • An Introduction to Punctuation

Olivia Valdes was the Associate Editorial Director for ThoughtCo. She worked with Dotdash Meredith from 2017 to 2021.

research report meaning

  • B.A., American Studies, Yale University

A research paper is a common form of academic writing . Research papers require students and academics to locate information about a topic (that is, to conduct research ), take a stand on that topic, and provide support (or evidence) for that position in an organized report.

The term research paper may also refer to a scholarly article that contains the results of original research or an evaluation of research conducted by others. Most scholarly articles must undergo a process of peer review before they can be accepted for publication in an academic journal.

Define Your Research Question

The first step in writing a research paper is defining your research question . Has your instructor assigned a specific topic? If so, great—you've got this step covered. If not, review the guidelines of the assignment. Your instructor has likely provided several general subjects for your consideration. Your research paper should focus on a specific angle on one of these subjects. Spend some time mulling over your options before deciding which one you'd like to explore more deeply.

Try to choose a research question that interests you. The research process is time-consuming, and you'll be significantly more motivated if you have a genuine desire to learn more about the topic. You should also consider whether you have access to all of the resources necessary to conduct thorough research on your topic, such as primary and secondary sources .

Create a Research Strategy 

Approach the research process systematically by creating a research strategy. First, review your library's website. What resources are available? Where will you find them? Do any resources require a special process to gain access? Start gathering those resources—especially those that may be difficult to access—as soon as possible.

Second, make an appointment with a reference librarian . A reference librarian is nothing short of a research superhero. He or she will listen to your research question, offer suggestions for how to focus your research, and direct you toward valuable sources that directly relate to your topic.

Evaluate Sources

Now that you've gathered a wide array of sources, it's time to evaluate them. First, consider the reliability of the information. Where is the information coming from? What is the origin of the source? Second, assess the  relevance  of the information. How does this information relate to your research question? Does it support, refute, or add context to your position? How does it relate to the other sources you'll be using in your paper? Once you have determined that your sources are both reliable and relevant, you can proceed confidently to the writing phase. 

Why Write Research Papers? 

The research process is one of the most taxing academic tasks you'll be asked to complete. Luckily, the value of writing a research paper goes beyond that A+ you hope to receive. Here are just some of the benefits of research papers. 

  • Learning Scholarly Conventions:  Writing a research paper is a crash course in the stylistic conventions of scholarly writing. During the research and writing process, you'll learn how to document your research, cite sources appropriately, format an academic paper, maintain an academic tone, and more.
  • Organizing Information: In a way, research is nothing more than a massive organizational project. The information available to you is near-infinite, and it's your job to review that information, narrow it down, categorize it, and present it in a clear, relevant format. This process requires attention to detail and major brainpower.
  • Managing Time: Research papers put your time management  skills to the test. Every step of the research and writing process takes time, and it's up to you to set aside the time you'll need to complete each step of the task. Maximize your efficiency by creating a research schedule and inserting blocks of "research time" into your calendar as soon as you receive the assignment. 
  • Exploring Your Chosen Subject:  We couldn't forget the best part of research papers—learning about something that truly excites you. No matter what topic you choose, you're bound to come away from the research process with new ideas and countless nuggets of fascinating information. 

The best research papers are the result of genuine interest and a thorough research process. With these ideas in mind, go forth and research. Welcome to the scholarly conversation!

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Library & Information Science Education Network

Research Report: Definition

Md. Ashikuzzaman

Research Report

The primary objective of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a wider audience, including other researchers, policymakers, and practitioners. Research reports play a crucial role in advancing knowledge and understanding in various fields of study. They provide a detailed and accurate account of the research process and outcomes, and they serve as a reference source for future research.

The structure of a research report typically follows a standard format. The introduction sets the context and background for the research and outlines the research questions or objectives. The literature review provides an overview of existing research on the topic and identifies gaps in the literature that the research aims to address. The methodology section describes the research design and methods used to collect and analyze data. The results section presents the findings of the study, often using tables, charts, and graphs. The discussion section interprets and contextualizes the findings and compares them to previous research. Finally, the conclusion summarizes the key findings and implications of the research, highlighting any limitations and recommendations for future research.

A research report can take various forms, depending on the field of study and the research question. For example, it may be a quantitative or qualitative report, a literature review report, or a case study report. A research report should be clear, concise, and objective regardless of the form.

Research reports are essential for various reasons. First, they provide a detailed and accurate account of the research process and outcomes, which can inform policy and practice in various settings. Second, research reports contribute to the development of knowledge and understanding in a particular field or discipline. They provide a reference source for other researchers in the field, and they can inspire new research questions and directions. Finally, research reports are a crucial component of academic and professional careers. They demonstrate research skills, expertise, and contributions to the field.

Tips for writing an excellent research report

Writing a research report can be a challenging task, but it is a crucial component of academic and professional research. An excellent research report should be clear, concise, and well-structured, with a focus on presenting accurate and objective findings. Here are some tips for writing an excellent research report:

  • Start with a clear research question: A good research report starts with a clear and focused research question. The question should be specific and relevant to the field of study, and it should guide the research design, methodology, and analysis.
  • Develop a strong methodology: The methodology section is the backbone of a research report. It should provide a clear and detailed description of the research design, sampling strategy, data collection and analysis procedures, and any ethical considerations.
  • Use clear and concise language: The language used in a research report should be clear, concise, and jargon-free. Avoid using complex sentences and technical terms that may be difficult for readers to understand.
  • Structure the report logically: A research report should be well-structured and follow a logical sequence of sections, such as an introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Each section should be clearly labeled and should flow smoothly into the next.
  • Present data accurately and effectively: The results section should present data accurately and effectively, using tables, graphs, and charts where appropriate. The data should be clearly labeled and easy to read, and the analysis should be presented in a way that is easy to understand.
  • Provide a thorough discussion of findings: The discussion section should provide a thorough and critical analysis of the findings, comparing them to previous research and discussing their implications for the field. The discussion should also highlight any limitations of the study and suggest avenues for future research.
  • Follow the guidelines and formatting requirements: It is essential to follow the guidelines and formatting requirements provided by the journal or publisher for the research report. This includes formatting, referencing, and citation styles.

A research report is a vital tool in disseminating research results to academic, professional, and public audiences. It provides a detailed analysis of the research problem, research questions, methodology, findings, and conclusions. Research reports are crucial in advancing knowledge and understanding in various fields of study, informing policy and practice, and contributing to academic and professional careers.

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Research reports

This resource will help you identify the common elements and basic format of a research report.

Research reports generally follow a similar structure and have common elements, each with a particular purpose. Learn more about each of these elements below.

Common elements of reports

Your title should be brief, topic-specific, and informative, clearly indicating the purpose and scope of your study. Include key words in your title so that search engines can easily access your work. For example:  Measurement of water around Station Pier.

An abstract is a concise summary that helps readers to quickly assess the content and direction of your paper. It should be brief, written in a single paragraph and cover: the scope and purpose of your report; an overview of methodology; a summary of the main findings or results; principal conclusions or significance of the findings; and recommendations made.

The information in the abstract must be presented in the same order as it is in your report. The abstract is usually written last when you have developed your arguments and synthesised the results.

The introduction creates the context for your research. It should provide sufficient background to allow the reader to understand and evaluate your study without needing to refer to previous publications. After reading the introduction your reader should understand exactly what your research is about, what you plan to do, why you are undertaking this research and which methods you have used. Introductions generally include:

  • The rationale for the present study. Why are you interested in this topic? Why is this topic worth investigating?
  • Key terms and definitions.
  • An outline of the research questions and hypotheses; the assumptions or propositions that your research will test.

Not all research reports have a separate literature review section. In shorter research reports, the review is usually part of the Introduction.

A literature review is a critical survey of recent relevant research in a particular field. The review should be a selection of carefully organised, focused and relevant literature that develops a narrative ‘story’ about your topic. Your review should answer key questions about the literature:

  • What is the current state of knowledge on the topic?
  • What differences in approaches / methodologies are there?
  • Where are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
  • What further research is needed? The review may identify a gap in the literature which provides a rationale for your study and supports your research questions and methodology.

The review is not just a summary of all you have read. Rather, it must develop an argument or a point of view that supports your chosen methodology and research questions.

The purpose of this section is to detail how you conducted your research so that others can understand and replicate your approach.

You need to briefly describe the subjects (if appropriate), any equipment or materials used and the approach taken. If the research method or method of data analysis is commonly used within your field of study, then simply reference the procedure. If, however, your methods are new or controversial then you need to describe them in more detail and provide a rationale for your approach. The methodology is written in the past tense and should be as concise as possible.

This section is a concise, factual summary of your findings, listed under headings appropriate to your research questions. It’s common to use tables and graphics. Raw data or details about the method of statistical analysis used should be included in the Appendices.

Present your results in a consistent manner. For example, if you present the first group of results as percentages, it will be confusing for the reader and difficult to make comparisons of data if later results are presented as fractions or as decimal values.

In general, you won’t discuss your results here. Any analysis of your results usually occurs in the Discussion section.

Notes on visual data representation:

  • Graphs and tables may be used to reveal trends in your data, but they must be explained and referred to in adjacent accompanying text.
  • Figures and tables do not simply repeat information given in the text: they summarise, amplify or complement it.
  • Graphs are always referred to as ‘Figures’, and both axes must be clearly labelled.
  • Tables must be numbered, and they must be able to stand-alone or make sense without your reader needing to read all of the accompanying text.

The Discussion responds to the hypothesis or research question. This section is where you interpret your results, account for your findings and explain their significance within the context of other research. Consider the adequacy of your sampling techniques, the scope and long-term implications of your study, any problems with data collection or analysis and any assumptions on which your study was based. This is also the place to discuss any disappointing results and address limitations.

Checklist for the discussion

  • To what extent was each hypothesis supported?
  • To what extent are your findings validated or supported by other research?
  • Were there unexpected variables that affected your results?
  • On reflection, was your research method appropriate?
  • Can you account for any differences between your results and other studies?

Conclusions in research reports are generally fairly short and should follow on naturally from points raised in the Discussion. In this section you should discuss the significance of your findings. To what extent and in what ways are your findings useful or conclusive? Is further research required? If so, based on your research experience, what suggestions could you make about improvements to the scope or methodology of future studies?

Also, consider the practical implications of your results and any recommendations you could make. For example, if your research is on reading strategies in the primary school classroom, what are the implications of your results for the classroom teacher? What recommendations could you make for teachers?

A Reference List contains all the resources you have cited in your work, while a Bibliography is a wider list containing all the resources you have consulted (but not necessarily cited) in the preparation of your work. It is important to check which of these is required, and the preferred format, style of references and presentation requirements of your own department.

Appendices (singular ‘Appendix’) provide supporting material to your project. Examples of such materials include:

  • Relevant letters to participants and organisations (e.g. regarding the ethics or conduct of the project).
  • Background reports.
  • Detailed calculations.

Different types of data are presented in separate appendices. Each appendix must be titled, labelled with a number or letter, and referred to in the body of the report.

Appendices are placed at the end of a report, and the contents are generally not included in the word count.

Fi nal ti p

While there are many common elements to research reports, it’s always best to double check the exact requirements for your task. You may find that you don’t need some sections, can combine others or have specific requirements about referencing, formatting or word limits.

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Research Report

  • Post last modified: 11 January 2022
  • Reading time: 25 mins read
  • Post category: Research Methodology

What is Research Report?

Research reporting is the oral or written presentation of the findings in such detail and form as to be readily understood and assessed by the society, economy or particularly by the researchers.

As earlier said that it is the final stage of the research process and its purpose is to convey to interested persons the whole result of the study. Report writing is common to both academic and managerial situations. In academics, a research report is prepared for comprehensive and application-oriented learning. In businesses or organisations, reports are used for the basis of decision making.

Table of Content

  • 1 What is Research Report?
  • 2 Research Report Definition
  • 3.1 Preliminary Part
  • 3.2 Introduction of the Report
  • 3.3 Review of Literature
  • 3.4 The Research Methodology
  • 3.5 Results
  • 3.6 Concluding Remarks
  • 3.7 Bibliography
  • 4 Significance of Report Writing
  • 5 Qualities of Good Report
  • 6.1 Analysis of the subject matter
  • 6.2 Research outline
  • 6.3 Preparation of rough draft
  • 6.4 Rewriting and polishing
  • 6.5 Writing the final draft
  • 7 Precautions for Writing Research Reports
  • 8.1.1 Technical Report
  • 8.1.2 Popular Report
  • 8.2.1 Written Report
  • 8.2.2 Oral Report

Research Report Definition

According to C. A. Brown , “A report is a communication from someone who has information to someone who wants to use that information.”

According to Goode and Hatt , “The preparation of report is the final stage of research, and it’s purpose is to convey to the interested persons the whole result of the study, in sufficient detail and so arranged as to enable each reader to comprehend the data and to determine for himself the validity of the conclusions.”

It is clear from the above definitions of a research report, it is a brief account of the problem of investigation, the justification of its selection and the procedure of analysis and interpretation. It is only a summary of the entire research proceedings.

In other words, it can be defined as written documents, which presents information in a specialized and concise manner.

Contents of Research Report

Although no hard and fast rules can be laid down, the report must contain the following points.

  • Acknowledgement
  • Table of contents
  • List of tables
  • List of graphs
  • Introduction
  • Background of the research study
  • Statement of the problem
  • Brief outline of the chapters
  • Books review
  • Review of articles published in books, journals, periodicals, etc
  • Review of articles published in leading newspapers
  • Working papers / discusssion paper / study reports
  • Articles on authorised websites
  • A broad conclusion and indications for further research
  • The theoretical framework (variables)
  • Model / hypothesis
  • Instruments for data collection
  • Data collection
  • Pilot study
  • Processing of data
  • Hypothesis / model testing
  • Data analysis and interpretation
  • Tables and figures
  • Conclusions
  • Shortcomings
  • Suggestions to the problems
  • Direction for further research

Preliminary Part

The preliminary part may have seven major components – cover, title, preface, acknowledgement, table of contents, list of tables, list of graphs. Long reports presented in book form have a cover made up of a card sheet. The cover contains title of the research report, the authority to whom the report is submitted, name of the author, etc.

The preface introduces the report to the readers. It gives a very brief introduction of the report. In the acknowledgements author mention names of persons and organisations that have extended co-operation and helped in the various stages of research. Table of contents is essential. It gives the title and page number of each chapter.

Introduction of the Report

The introduction of the research report should clearly and logically bring out the background of the problem addressed in the research. The purpose of the introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. A clear statement of the problem with specific questions to be answered is presented in the introduction. It contains a brief outline of the chapters.

Review of Literature

The third section reviews the important literature related to the study. A comprehensive review of the research literature referred to must be made. Previous research studies and the important writings in the area under study should be reviewed. Review of literature is helpful to provide a background for the development of the present study.

The researcher may review concerned books, articles published in edited books, journals and periodicals. Researcher may also take review of articles published in leading newspapers. A researcher should study working papers/discussion papers/study reports. It is essential for a broad conclusion and indications for further research.

The Research Methodology

Research methodology is an integral part of the research. It should clearly indicate the universe and the selection of samples, techniques of data collection, analysis and interpretation, statistical techniques, etc.

Results contain pilot study, processing of data, hypothesis/model testing, data analysis and interpretation, tables and figures, etc. This is the heart of the research report. If a pilot study is planned to be used, it’s purpose should be given in the research methodology.

The collected data and the information should be edited, coded, tabulated and analysed with a view to arriving at a valid and authentic conclusion. Tables and figures are used to clarify the significant relationship. The results obtained through tables, graphs should be critically interpreted.

Concluding Remarks

The concluding remarks should discuss the results obtained in the earlier sections, as well as their usefulness and implications. It contains findings, conclusions, shortcomings, suggestions to the problem and direction for future research. Findings are statements of factual information based upon the data analysis.

Conclusions must clearly explain whether the hypothesis have been established and rejected. This part requires great expertise and preciseness. A report should also refer to the limitations of the applicability of the research inferences. It is essential to suggest the theoretical, practical and policy implications of the research. The suggestions should be supported by scientific and logical arguments. The future direction of research based on the work completed should also be outlined.

Bibliography

The bibliography is an alphabetic list of books, journal articles, reports, etc, published or unpublished, read, referred to, examined by the researcher in preparing the report. The bibliography should follow standard formats for books, journal articles, research reports.

The end of the research report may consist of appendices, listed in respect of all technical data. Appendices are for the purpose of providing detailed data or information that would be too cumbersome within the main body of the research report.

Significance of Report Writing

Report writing is an important communication medium in organisations. The most crucial findings might have come out through a research report. Report is common to academics and managers also. Reports are used for comprehensive and application oriented learning in academics. In organisations, reports are used for the basis of decision making. The importance of report writing can be discussed as under.

Through research reports, a manager or an executive can quickly get an idea of a current scenario which improves his information base for making sound decisions affecting future operations of the company or enterprise. The research report acts as a means of communication of various research findings to the interested parties, organisations and general public.

Good report writing play, a significant role of conveying unknown facts about the phenomenon to the concerned parties. This may provide new insights and new opportunities to the people. Research report plays a key role in making effective decisions in marketing, production, banking, materials, human resource development and government also. Good report writing is used for economic planning and optimum utilisation of resources for the development of a nation.

Report writing facilitates the validation of generalisation. A research report is an end product of research. As earlier said that report writing provides useful information in arriving at rational decisions that may reform the business and society. The findings, conclusions, suggestions and recommendations are useful to academicians, scholars and policymakers. Report writing provides reference material for further research in the same or similar areas of research to the concerned parties.

While preparing a research report, a researcher should take some proper precautions. Report writing should be simple, lucid and systematic. Report writing should be written speedily without interrupting the continuity of thought. The report writing should sustain the interest of readers.

Qualities of Good Report

Report writing is a highly skilled job. It is a process of analysing, understanding and consolidating the findings and projecting a meaningful view of the phenomenon studied. A good report writing is essential for effective communication.

Following are the essential qualities of good report:

  • A research report is essentially a scientific documentation. It should have a suggestive title, headings and sub-headings, paragraphs arranged in a logical sequence.
  • Good research report should include everything that is relevant and exclude everything that is irrelevant. It means that it should contain the facts rather than opinion.
  • The language of the report should be simple and unambiguous. It means that it should be free from biases of the researchers derived from the past experience. Confusion, pretentiousness and pomposity should be carefully guarded against. It means that the language of the report should be simple, employing appropriate words, idioms and expressions.
  • The report must be free from grammatical mistakes. It must be grammatically accurate. Faulty construction of sentences makes the meaning of the narrative obscure and ambiguous.
  • The report has to take into consideration two facts. Firstly, for whom the report is meant and secondly, what is his level of knowledge. The report has to look to the subject matter of the report and the fact as to the level of knowledge of the person for whom it is meant. Because all reports are not meant for research scholars.

Steps in Writing Research Report

Report writing is a time consuming and expensive exercise. Therefore, reports have to be very sharply focused in purpose content and readership. There is no single universally acceptable method of writing a research report.

Following are the general steps in writing a research report:

Analysis of the subject matter

Research outline, preparation of rough draft, rewriting and polishing, writing the final draft.

This is the first and important step in writing a research report. It is concerned with the development of a subject. Subject matter should be written in a clear, logical and concise manner. The style adopted should be open, straightforward and dignified and folk style language should be avoided.

The data, the reliability and validity of the results of the statistical analysis should be in the form of tables, figures and equations. All redundancy in the data or results presented should be eliminated.

The research outline is an organisational framework prepared by the researcher well in advance. It is an aid to logical organisation of material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report. In the process of writing, if need be, outline may be revised accordingly.

Time and place of the study, scope and limitations of the study, study design, summary of pilot study, methods of data collection, analysis interpretation, etc., may be included in a research outline.

Having prepared the primary and secondary data, the researcher has to prepare a rough draft. While preparing the rough draft, the researcher should keep the objectives of the research in mind, and focus on one objective at a time. The researcher should make a checklist of the important points that are necessary to be covered in the manuscript. A researcher should use dictionary and relevant reference materials as and when required.

This is an important step in writing a research report. It takes more time than a rough draft. While rewriting and polishing, a researcher should check the report for weakness in logical development or presentation. He should take breaks in between rewriting and polishing since this gives the time to incubate the ideas.

The last and important step is writing the final draft. The language of the report should be simple, employing appropriate words and expressions and should avoid vague expressions such as ‘it seems’ and ‘there may be’ etc.

It should not used personal pronouns, such as I, We, My, Us, etc and should substitute these by such expressions as a researcher, investigator, etc. Before the final drafting of the report, it is advisable that the researcher should prepare a first draft for critical considerations and possible improvements. It will be helpful in writing the final draft. Finally, the report should be logically outlined with the future directions of the research based on the work completed.

Precautions for Writing Research Reports

A research report is a means of conveying the research study to a specific target audience. The following precautions should be taken while preparing a research report:

  • Its hould belong enough to cover the subject and short enough to preserve interest.
  • It should not be dull and complicated.
  • It should be simple, without the usage of abstract terms and technical jargons.
  • It should offer ready availability of findings with the help of charts, tables and graphs, as readers prefer quick knowledge of main findings.
  • The layout of the report should be in accordance with the objectives of the research study.
  • There should be no grammatical errors and writing should adhere to the techniques of report writing in case of quotations, footnotes and documentations.
  • It should be original, intellectual and contribute to the solution of a problem or add knowledge to the concerned field.
  • Appendices should been listed with respect to all the technical data in the report.
  • It should be attractive, neat and clean, whether handwritten or typed.
  • The report writer should refrain from confusing the possessive form of the word ‘it’ is with ‘it’s.’ The accurate possessive form of ‘it is’ is ‘its.’ The use of ‘it’s’ is the contractive form of ‘it is.
  • A report should not have contractions. Examples are ‘didn’t’ or ‘it’s.’ In report writing, it is best to use the non-contractive form. Therefore, the examples would be replaced by ‘did not’ and ‘it is.’ Using ‘Figure’ instead of ‘Fig.’ and ‘Table’ instead of ‘Tab.’ will spare the reader of having to translate the abbreviations, while reading. If abbreviations are used, use them consistently throughout the report. For example, do not switch among ‘versus,’ and ‘vs’.
  • It is advisable to avoid using the word ‘very’ and other such words that try to embellish a description. They do not add any extra meaning and, therefore, should be dropped.
  • Repetition hampers lucidity. Report writers must avoid repeating the same word more than once within a sentence.
  • When you use the word ‘this’ or ‘these’ make sure you indicate to what you are referring. This reduces the ambiguity in your writing and helps to tie sentences together.
  • Do not use the word ‘they’ to refer to a singular person. You can either rewrite the sentence to avoid needing such a reference or use the singular ‘he or she.’

Types of Research Report

Research reports are designed in order to convey and record the information that will be of practical use to the reader. It is organized into distinct units of specific and highly visible information. The kind of audience addressed in the research report decides the type of report.

Research reports can be categorized on the following basis:

Classification on the Basis of Information

Classification on the basis of representation.

Following are the ways through which the results of the research report can be presented on the basis of information contained:

Technical Report

A technical report is written for other researchers. In writing the technical reports, the importance is mainly given to the methods that have been used to collect the information and data, the presumptions that are made and finally, the various presentation techniques that are used to present the findings and data.

Following are main features of a technical report:

  • Summary: It covers a brief analysis of the findings of the research in a very few pages. 
  • Nature: It contains the reasons for which the research is undertaken, the analysis and the data that is required in order to prepare a report. 
  • Methods employed: It contains a description of the methods that were employed in order to collect the data. 
  • Data: It covers a brief analysis of the various sources from which the data has been collected with their features and drawbacks 
  • Analysis of data and presentation of the findings: It contains the various forms through which the data that has been analysed can be presented. 
  • Conclusions: It contains a brief explanation of findings of the research. 
  • Bibliography: It contains a detailed analysis of the various bibliographies that have been used in order to conduct a research. 
  • Technical appendices: It contains the appendices for the technical matters and for questionnaires and mathematical derivations. 
  • Index: The index of the technical report must be provided at the end of the report.

Popular Report

A popular report is formulated when there is a need to draw conclusions of the findings of the research report. One of the main points of consideration that should be kept in mind while formulating a research report is that it must be simple and attractive. It must be written in a very simple manner that is understandable to all. It must also be made attractive by using large prints, various sub-headings and by giving cartoons occasionally.

Following are the main points that must be kept in mind while preparing a popular report:

  • Findings and their implications : While preparing a popular report, main importance is given to the findings of the information and the conclusions that can be drawn out of these findings.
  • Recommendations for action : If there are any deviations in the report then recommendations are made for taking corrective action in order to rectify the errors.
  • Objective of the study : In a popular report, the specific objective for which the research has been undertaken is presented.
  • Methods employed : The report must contain the various methods that has been employed in order to conduct a research.
  • Results : The results of the research findings must be presented in a suitable and appropriate manner by taking the help of charts and diagrams.
  • Technical appendices : The report must contain an in-depth information used to collect the data in the form of appendices.

Following are the ways through which the results of the research report can be presented on the basis of representation:

  • Writtenreport
  • Oral report

Written Report

A written report plays a vital role in every business operation. The manner in which an organization writes business letters and business reports creates an impression of its standard. Therefore, the organization should emphasize on the improvement of the writing skills of the employees in order to maintain effective relations with their customers.

Writing effective written reports requires a lot of hard work. Therefore, before you begin writing, it is important to know the objective, i.e., the purpose of writing, collection and organization of required data.

Oral Report

At times, oral presentation of the results that are drawn out of research is considered effective, particularly in cases where policy recommendations are to be made. This approach proves beneficial because it provides a medium of interaction between a listener and a speaker. This leads to a better understanding of the findings and their implications.

However, the main drawback of oral presentation is the lack of any permanent records related to the research. Oral presentation of the report is also effective when it is supported with various visual devices, such as slides, wall charts and whiteboards that help in better understanding of the research reports.

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What Is a Research Report?

Understanding research reports, financial analyst research reports, research report impact, conflicts of interest.

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What Is a Research Report? How They're Produced and Impact

James Chen, CMT is an expert trader, investment adviser, and global market strategist.

research report meaning

A research report is a document prepared by an analyst or strategist who is a part of the investment research team in a stock brokerage or investment bank . A research report may focus on a specific stock or industry sector, a currency, commodity or fixed-income instrument, or on a geographic region or country. Research reports generally, but not always, have actionable recommendations such as investment ideas that investors can act upon.

Research reports are produced by a variety of sources, ranging from market research firms to in-house departments at large organizations. When applied to the investment industry, the term usually refers to sell-side research, or investment research produced by brokerage houses.

Such research is disseminated to the institutional and retail clients of the brokerage that produces it. Research produced by the buy-side, which includes pension funds, mutual funds, and portfolio managers , is usually for internal use only and is not distributed to external parties.

Financial analysts may produce research reports for the purpose of supporting a particular recommendation, such as whether to buy or sell a particular security or whether a client should consider a particular financial product. For example, an analyst may create a report in regards to a new offering being proposed by a company. The report could include relevant metrics regarding the company itself, such as the number of years they have been in operation as well as the names of key stakeholders , along with statistics regarding the current state of the market in which the company participates. Information regarding overall profitability and the intended use of the funds can also be included.

Enthusiasts of the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) might insist that the value of professional analysts' research reports is suspect and that investors likely place too much confidence in the conclusions such analysts make. While a definitive conclusion about this topic is difficult to make because comparisons are not exact, some research papers do exist which claim empirical evidence supporting the value of such reports.

One such paper studied the market for India-based investments and analysts who cover them. The paper was published in the March 2014 edition of the International Research Journal of Business and Management. Its authors concluded that analyst recommendations do have an impact and are beneficial to investors at least in short-term decisions.

While some analysts are functionally unaffiliated, others may be directly or indirectly affiliated with the companies for which they produce reports. Unaffiliated analysts traditionally perform independent research to determine an appropriate recommendation and may have a limited concern regarding the outcome.

Affiliated analysts may feel best served by ensuring any research reports portray clients in a favorable light. Additionally, if an analyst is also an investor in the company on which the report is based, he may have a personal incentive to avoid topics that may result in a lowered valuation of the securities in which he has invested.

research report meaning

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Definition of research

 (Entry 1 of 2)

Definition of research  (Entry 2 of 2)

transitive verb

intransitive verb

  • disquisition
  • examination
  • exploration
  • inquisition
  • investigation
  • delve (into)
  • inquire (into)
  • investigate
  • look (into)

Examples of research in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'research.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle French recerche , from recercher to go about seeking, from Old French recerchier , from re- + cerchier, sercher to search — more at search

1577, in the meaning defined at sense 3

1588, in the meaning defined at transitive sense 1

Phrases Containing research

  • operations research
  • oppo research
  • translational research
  • market research

research and development

  • research park
  • marketing research

Dictionary Entries Near research

Cite this entry.

“Research.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/research. Accessed 19 Feb. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of research.

Kids Definition of research  (Entry 2 of 2)

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Britannica English: Translation of research for Arabic Speakers

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

  • Annotated Bibliography
  • Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
  • Group Presentations
  • Dealing with Nervousness
  • Using Visual Aids
  • Grading Someone Else's Paper
  • Types of Structured Group Activities
  • Group Project Survival Skills
  • Leading a Class Discussion
  • Multiple Book Review Essay
  • Reviewing Collected Works
  • Writing a Case Analysis Paper
  • Writing a Case Study
  • About Informed Consent
  • Writing Field Notes
  • Writing a Policy Memo
  • Writing a Reflective Paper
  • Writing a Research Proposal
  • Generative AI and Writing
  • Acknowledgments

The purpose of a field report in the social sciences is to describe the deliberate observation of people, places, and/or events and to analyze what has been observed in order to identify and categorize common themes in relation to the research problem underpinning the study. The content represents the researcher's interpretation of meaning found in data that has been gathered during one or more observational events.

Flick, Uwe. The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Data Collection . London: SAGE Publications, 2018; Lofland, John, David Snow, Leon Anderson, and Lyn H. Lofland. Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 2022; Baker, Lynda. "Observation: A Complex Research Method." Library Trends 55 (Summer 2006): 171-189.; Kellehear, Allan. The Unobtrusive Researcher: A Guide to Methods . New York: Routledge, 2020.

How to Approach Writing a Field Report

How to Begin

Field reports are most often assigned in disciplines of the applied social sciences [e.g., social work, anthropology, gerontology, criminal justice, education, law, the health care services] where it is important to build a bridge of relevancy between the theoretical concepts learned in the classroom and the practice of actually doing the work you are being taught to do. Field reports are also common in certain science disciplines [e.g., geology] but these reports are organized differently and serve a different purpose than what is described below.

Professors will assign a field report with the intention of improving your understanding of key theoretical concepts by applying methods of careful and structured observation of, and reflection about, people, places, or phenomena existing in their natural settings. Field reports facilitate the development of data collection techniques and observation skills and they help you to understand how theory applies to real world situations. Field reports are also an opportunity to obtain evidence through methods of observing professional practice that contribute to or challenge existing theories.

We are all observers of people, their interactions, places, and events; however, your responsibility when writing a field report is to conduct research based on data generated by the act of designing a specific study, deliberate observation, synthesis of key findings, and interpretation of their meaning.

When writing a field report you need to:

  • Systematically observe and accurately record the varying aspects of a situation . Always approach your field study with a detailed protocol about what you will observe, where you should conduct your observations, and the method by which you will collect and record your data.
  • Continuously analyze your observations . Always look for the meaning underlying the actions you observe. Ask yourself: What's going on here? What does this observed activity mean? What else does this relate to? Note that this is an on-going process of reflection and analysis taking place for the duration of your field research.
  • Keep the report’s aims in mind while you are observing . Recording what you observe should not be done randomly or haphazardly; you must be focused and pay attention to details. Enter the observation site [i.e., "field"] with a clear plan about what you are intending to observe and record in relation to the research problem while, at the same time, being prepared to adapt to changing circumstances as they may arise.
  • Consciously observe, record, and analyze what you hear and see in the context of a theoretical framework . This is what separates data gatherings from reporting. The theoretical framework guiding your field research should determine what, when, and how you observe and act as the foundation from which you interpret your findings in relation to the underlying assumptions embedded in the theoretical framework .

Techniques to Record Your Observations Although there is no limit to the type of data gathering techniques you can use, these are the most frequently used methods:

Note Taking This is the most common and easiest method of recording your observations. Tips for taking notes include: organizing some shorthand symbols beforehand so that recording basic or repeated actions does not impede your ability to observe, using many small paragraphs, which reflect changes in activities, who is talking, etc., and, leaving space on the page so you can write down additional thoughts and ideas about what’s being observed, any theoretical insights, and notes to yourself that are set aside for further investigation. See drop-down tab for additional information about note-taking.

Photography With the advent of smart phones, an almost unlimited number of high quality photographs can be taken of the objects, events, and people observed during a field study. Photographs can help capture an important moment in time as well as document details about the space where your observation takes place. Taking a photograph can save you time in documenting the details of a space that would otherwise require extensive note taking. However, be aware that flash photography could undermine your ability to observe unobtrusively so assess the lighting in your observation space; if it's too dark, you may need to rely on taking notes. Also, you should reject the idea that photographs represent some sort of "window into the world" because this assumption creates the risk of over-interpreting what they show. As with any product of data gathering, you are the sole instrument of interpretation and meaning-making, not the object itself. Video and Audio Recordings Video or audio recording your observations has the positive effect of giving you an unfiltered record of the observation event. It also facilitates repeated analysis of your observations. This can be particularly helpful as you gather additional information or insights during your research. However, these techniques have the negative effect of increasing how intrusive you are as an observer and will often not be practical or even allowed under certain circumstances [e.g., interaction between a doctor and a patient] and in certain organizational settings [e.g., a courtroom]. Illustrations/Drawings This does not refer to an artistic endeavor but, rather, refers to the possible need, for example, to draw a map of the observation setting or illustrating objects in relation to people's behavior. This can also take the form of rough tables, charts, or graphs documenting the frequency and type of activities observed. These can be subsequently placed in a more readable format when you write your field report. To save time, draft a table [i.e., columns and rows] on a separate piece of paper before an observation if you know you will be entering data in that way.

NOTE:   You may consider using a laptop or other electronic device to record your notes as you observe, but keep in mind the possibility that the clicking of keys while you type or noises from your device can be obtrusive, whereas writing your notes on paper is relatively quiet and unobtrusive. Always assess your presence in the setting where you're gathering the data so as to minimize your impact on the subject or phenomenon being studied.

ANOTHER NOTE:   Techniques of deliberate observation and data gathering are not innate skills; they are skills that must be learned and practiced in order to achieve proficiency. Before your first observation, practice the technique you plan to use in a setting similar to your study site [e.g., take notes about how people choose to enter checkout lines at a grocery store if your research involves examining the choice patterns of unrelated people forced to queue in busy social settings]. When the act of data gathering counts, you'll be glad you practiced beforehand.

YET ANOTHER NOTE:   An issue rarely discussed in the literature about conducting field research is whether you should move around the study site while observing or remaining situated in one place. Moving around can be intrusive, but it facilitates observing people's behavior from multiple vectors. However, if you remain in one place throughout the observation [or during each observation], you will eventually blend into the background and diminish the chance of unintentionally influencing people's behavior. If the site has a complex set of interactions or interdependent activities [e.g., a play ground], consider moving around; if the study site is relatively fixed [e.g., a classroom], then consider staying in one place while observing.

Examples of Things to Document While Observing

  • Physical setting . The characteristics of an occupied space and the human use of the place where the observation(s) are being conducted.
  • Objects and material culture . This refers to the presence, placement, and arrangement of objects that impact the behavior or actions of those being observed. If applicable, describe the cultural artifacts representing the beliefs [i.e., the values, ideas, attitudes, and assumptions] of the individuals you are observing [e.g., the choice of particular types of clothing in the observation of family gatherings during culturally specific holidays].
  • Use of language . Don't just observe but  listen to what is being said, how is it being said, and the tone of conversations among participants.
  • Behavior cycles . This refers to documenting when and who performs what behavior or task and how often they occur. Record at which stage this behavior is occurring within the setting.
  • The order in which events unfold . Note sequential patterns of behavior or the moment when actions or events take place and their significance. Also, be prepared to note moments that diverge from these sequential patterns of behavior or actions.
  • Physical characteristics of subjects. If relevant, document personal characteristics of individuals being observed. Note that, unless this data can be verified in interviews or from documentary evidence, you should only focus on characteristics that can be clearly observed [e.g., clothing, physical appearance, body language].
  • Expressive body movements . This would include things like body posture or facial expressions. Note that it may be relevant to also assess whether expressive body movements support or contradict the language used in conversation [e.g., detecting sarcasm].

Brief notes about all of these examples contextualize your observations; however, your observation notes will be guided primarily by your theoretical framework, keeping in mind that your observations will feed into and potentially modify or alter these frameworks.

Sampling Techniques

Sampling refers to the process used to select a portion of the population for study . Qualitative research, of which observation is one method of data gathering, is generally based on non-probability and purposive sampling rather than probability or random approaches characteristic of quantitatively-driven studies. Sampling in observational research is flexible and often continues until no new themes emerge from the data, a point referred to as data saturation.

All sampling decisions are made for the explicit purpose of obtaining the richest possible source of information to answer the research questions. Decisions about sampling assumes you know what you want to observe, what behaviors are important to record, and what research problem you are addressing before you begin the study. These questions determine what sampling technique you should use, so be sure you have adequately answered them before selecting a sampling method.

Ways to sample when conducting an observation include:

  • Ad Libitum Sampling -- this approach is not that different from what people do at the zoo; they observe whatever seems interesting at the moment. There is no organized system of recording the observations; you just note whatever seems relevant at the time. The advantage of this method is that you are often able to observe relatively rare or unusual behaviors that might be missed by more deliberately designed sampling methods. This method is also useful for obtaining preliminary observations that can be used to develop your final field study. Problems using this method include the possibility of inherent bias toward conspicuous behaviors or individuals, thereby missing mundane or repeated patterns of behavior, and that you may miss brief interactions in social settings.
  • Behavior Sampling -- this involves watching the entire group of subjects and recording each occurrence of a specific behavior of interest and with reference to which individuals were involved. The method is useful in recording rare behaviors missed by other sampling methods and is often used in conjunction with focal or scan methods [see below]. However, sampling can be biased towards particular conspicuous behaviors.
  • Continuous Recording -- provides a faithful record of behavior including frequencies, durations, and latencies [the time that elapses between a stimulus and the response to it]. This is a very demanding method because you are trying to record everything within the setting and, thus, measuring reliability may be sacrificed. In addition, durations and latencies are only reliable if subjects remain present throughout the collection of data. However, this method facilitates analyzing sequences of behaviors and ensures obtaining a wealth of data about the observation site and the people within it. The use of audio or video recording is most useful with this type of sampling.
  • Focal Sampling -- this involves observing one individual for a specified amount of time and recording all instances of that individual's behavior. Usually you have a set of predetermined categories or types of behaviors that you are interested in observing [e.g., when a teacher walks around the classroom] and you keep track of the duration of those behaviors. This approach doesn't tend to bias one behavior over another and provides significant detail about a individual's behavior. However, with this method, you likely have to conduct a lot of focal samples before you have a good idea about how group members interact. It can also be difficult within certain settings to keep one individual in sight for the entire period of the observation without being intrusive.
  • Instantaneous Sampling -- this is where observation sessions are divided into short intervals divided by sample points. At each sample point the observer records if predetermined behaviors of interest are taking place. This method is not effective for recording discrete events of short duration and, frequently, observers will want to record novel behaviors that occur slightly before or after the point of sampling, creating a sampling error. Though not exact, this method does give you an idea of durations and is relatively easy to do. It is also good for recording behavior patterns occurring at a specific instant, such as, movement or body positions.
  • One-Zero Sampling -- this is very similar to instantaneous sampling, only the observer records if the behaviors of interest have occurred at any time during an interval instead of at the instant of the sampling point. The method is useful for capturing data on behavior patterns that start and stop repeatedly and rapidly, but that last only for a brief period of time. The disadvantage of this approach is that you get a dimensionless score for an entire recording session, so you only get one one data point for each recording session.
  • Scan Sampling -- this method involves taking a census of the entire observed group at predetermined time periods and recording what each individual is doing at that moment. This is useful for obtaining group behavioral data and allows for data that are evenly representative across individuals and periods of time. On the other hand, this method may be biased towards more conspicuous behaviors and you may miss a lot of what is going on between observations, especially rare or unusual behaviors. It is also difficult to record more than a few individuals in a group setting without missing what each individual is doing at each predetermined moment in time [e.g., children sitting at a table during lunch at school]. The use of audio or video recording is useful with this type of sampling.

Alderks, Peter. Data Collection. Psychology 330 Course Documents. Animal Behavior Lab. University of Washington; Emerson, Robert M. Contemporary Field Research: Perspectives and Formulations . 2nd ed. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 2001; Emerson, Robert M. et al. “Participant Observation and Fieldnotes.” In Handbook of Ethnography . Paul Atkinson et al., eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), 352-368; Emerson, Robert M. et al. Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes . 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2011; Ethnography, Observational Research, and Narrative Inquiry. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Hazel, Spencer. "The Paradox from Within: Research Participants Doing-Being-Observed." Qualitative Research 16 (August 2016): 446-457; Pace, Tonio. Writing Field Reports. Scribd Online Library; Presser, Jon and Dona Schwartz. “Photographs within the Sociological Research Process.” In Image-based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers . Jon Prosser, editor (London: Falmer Press, 1998), pp. 115-130; Pyrczak, Fred and Randall R. Bruce. Writing Empirical Research Reports: A Basic Guide for Students of the Social and Behavioral Sciences . 5th ed. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing, 2005; Report Writing. UniLearning. University of Wollongong, Australia; Wolfinger, Nicholas H. "On Writing Fieldnotes: Collection Strategies and Background Expectancies.” Qualitative Research 2 (April 2002): 85-95; Writing Reports. Anonymous. The Higher Education Academy.

Structure and Writing Style

How you choose to format your field report is determined by the research problem, the theoretical framework that is driving your analysis, the observations that you make, and/or specific guidelines established by your professor. Since field reports do not have a standard format, it is worthwhile to determine from your professor what the preferred structure and organization should be before you begin to write. Note that field reports should be written in the past tense. With this in mind, most field reports in the social sciences include the following elements:

I.  Introduction The introduction should describe the research problem, the specific objectives of your research, and the important theories or concepts underpinning your field study. The introduction should describe the nature of the organization or setting where you are conducting the observation, what type of observations you have conducted, what your focus was, when you observed, and the methods you used for collecting the data. Collectively, this descriptive information should support reasons why you chose the observation site and the people or events within it. You should also include a review of pertinent literature related to the research problem, particularly if similar methods were used in prior studies. Conclude your introduction with a statement about how the rest of the paper is organized.

II.  Description of Activities

Your readers only knowledge and understanding of what happened will come from the description section of your report because they were not witnesses to the situation, people, or events that you are writing about. Given this, it is crucial that you provide sufficient details to place the analysis that will follow into proper context; don't make the mistake of providing a description without context. The description section of a field report is similar to a well written piece of journalism. Therefore, a useful approach to systematically describing the varying aspects of an observed situation is to answer the "Five W’s of Investigative Reporting." As Dubbels notes [p. 19], these are:

  • What -- describe what you observed. Note the temporal, physical, and social boundaries you imposed to limit the observations you made. What were your general impressions of the situation you were observing. For example, as a student teacher, what is your impression of the application of iPads as a learning device in a history class; as a cultural anthropologist, what is your impression of women's participation in a Native American religious ritual?
  • Where -- provide background information about the setting of your observation and, if necessary, note important material objects that are present that help contextualize the observation [e.g., arrangement of computers in relation to student engagement with the teacher].
  • When -- record factual data about the day and the beginning and ending time of each observation. Note that it may also be necessary to include background information or key events which impact upon the situation you were observing [e.g., observing the ability of teachers to re-engage students after coming back from an unannounced fire drill].
  • Who -- note background and demographic information about the individuals being observed e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, and/or any other variables relevant to your study]. Record who is doing what and saying what, as well as, who is not doing or saying what. If relevant, be sure to record who was missing from the observation.
  • Why -- why were you doing this? Describe the reasons for selecting particular situations to observe. Note why something happened. Also note why you may have included or excluded certain information.

III.  Interpretation and Analysis

Always place the analysis and interpretations of your field observations within the larger context of the theoretical assumptions and issues you described in the introduction. Part of your responsibility in analyzing the data is to determine which observations are worthy of comment and interpretation, and which observations are more general in nature. It is your theoretical framework that allows you to make these decisions. You need to demonstrate to the reader that you are conducting the field work through the eyes of an informed viewer and from the perspective of a casual observer.

Here are some questions to ask yourself when analyzing your observations:

  • What is the meaning of what you have observed?
  • Why do you think what you observed happened? What evidence do you have for your reasoning?
  • What events or behaviors were typical or widespread? If appropriate, what was unusual or out of the ordinary? How were they distributed among categories of people?
  • Do you see any connections or patterns in what you observed?
  • Why did the people you observed proceed with an action in the way that they did? What are the implications of this?
  • Did the stated or implicit objectives of what you were observing match what was achieved?
  • What were the relative merits of the behaviors you observed?
  • What were the strengths and weaknesses of the observations you recorded?
  • Do you see connections between what you observed and the findings of similar studies identified from your review of the literature?
  • How do your observations fit into the larger context of professional practice? In what ways have your observations possibly changed or affirmed your perceptions of professional practice?
  • Have you learned anything from what you observed?

NOTE:   Only base your interpretations on what you have actually observed. Do not speculate or manipulate your observational data to fit into your study's theoretical framework.

IV.  Conclusion and Recommendations

The conclusion should briefly recap of the entire study, reiterating the importance or significance of your observations. Avoid including any new information. You should also state any recommendations you may have based on the results of your study. Be sure to describe any unanticipated problems you encountered and note the limitations of your study. The conclusion should not be more than two or three paragraphs.

V.  Appendix

This is where you would place information that is not essential to explaining your findings, but that supports your analysis [especially repetitive or lengthy information], that validates your conclusions, or that contextualizes a related point that helps the reader understand the overall report. Examples of information that could be included in an appendix are figures/tables/charts/graphs of results, statistics, pictures, maps, drawings, or, if applicable, transcripts of interviews. There is no limit to what can be included in the appendix or its format [e.g., a DVD recording of the observation site], provided that it is relevant to the study's purpose and reference is made to it in the report. If information is placed in more than one appendix ["appendices"], the order in which they are organized is dictated by the order they were first mentioned in the text of the report.

VI.  References

List all sources that you consulted and obtained information from while writing your field report. Note that field reports generally do not include further readings or an extended bibliography. However, consult with your professor concerning what your list of sources should be included and be sure to write them in the preferred citation style of your discipline or is preferred by your professor [i.e., APA, Chicago, MLA, etc.].

Alderks, Peter. Data Collection. Psychology 330 Course Documents. Animal Behavior Lab. University of Washington; Dubbels, Brock R. Exploring the Cognitive, Social, Cultural, and Psychological Aspects of Gaming and Simulations . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2018; Emerson, Robert M. Contemporary Field Research: Perspectives and Formulations . 2nd ed. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 2001; Emerson, Robert M. et al. “Participant Observation and Fieldnotes.” In Handbook of Ethnography . Paul Atkinson et al., eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), 352-368; Emerson, Robert M. et al. Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes . 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2011; Ethnography, Observational Research, and Narrative Inquiry. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Pace, Tonio. Writing Field Reports. Scribd Online Library; Pyrczak, Fred and Randall R. Bruce. Writing Empirical Research Reports: A Basic Guide for Students of the Social and Behavioral Sciences . 5th ed. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing, 2005; Report Writing. UniLearning. University of Wollongong, Australia; Wolfinger, Nicholas H. "On Writing Fieldnotes: Collection Strategies and Background Expectancies.” Qualitative Research 2 (April 2002): 85-95; Writing Reports. Anonymous. The Higher Education Academy.

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CDC Laboratory Recommendations for Syphilis Testing, United States, 2024

Recommendations and Reports / February 8, 2024 / 73(1);1–32

John R. Papp, PhD 1 ; Ina U. Park, MD 1 ,2 ; Yetunde Fakile, PhD 1 ; Lara Pereira, PhD 3 ; Allan Pillay, PhD 1 ; Gail A. Bolan, MD 1 ( View author affiliations )

Introduction

Updating syphilis serologic laboratory terminology, principles for syphilis diagnosis, recommendations for syphilis testing in the united states, opportunities for additional research on the laboratory detection of t. pallidum infections.

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This report provides new CDC recommendations for tests that can support a diagnosis of syphilis, including serologic testing and methods for the identification of the causative agent Treponema pallidum . These comprehensive recommendations are the first published by CDC on laboratory testing for syphilis, which has traditionally been based on serologic algorithms to detect a humoral immune response to T. pallidum . These tests can be divided into nontreponemal and treponemal tests depending on whether they detect antibodies that are broadly reactive to lipoidal antigens shared by both host and T. pallidum or antibodies specific to T. pallidum , respectively. Both types of tests must be used in conjunction to help distinguish between an untreated infection or a past infection that has been successfully treated. Newer serologic tests allow for laboratory automation but must be used in an algorithm, which also can involve older manual serologic tests. Direct detection of T. pallidum continues to evolve from microscopic examination of material from lesions for visualization of T. pallidum to molecular detection of the organism. Limited point-of-care tests for syphilis are available in the United States; increased availability of point-of-care tests that are sensitive and specific could facilitate expansion of screening programs and reduce the time from test result to treatment. These recommendations are intended for use by clinical laboratory directors, laboratory staff, clinicians, and disease control personnel who must choose among the multiple available testing methods, establish standard operating procedures for collecting and processing specimens, interpret test results for laboratory reporting, and counsel and treat patients. Future revisions to these recommendations will be based on new research or technologic advancements for syphilis clinical laboratory science.

Treponema pallidum subsp. pallidum, primarily transmitted through sexual contact, is among four pathogenic species in the genus Treponema, which is in the family Treponemataceae ( 1 ). The other three pathogenic Treponema species cause skin diseases mostly transmitted by direct skin-to-skin contact. Yaws is caused by T. pallidum subsp. pertenue and is found in tropical areas in Africa, Asia, and Latin America ( 2 ). Treponema carateum infection results in pinta which, although rare, is found in tropical areas of Latin America ( 3 ). Endemic syphilis or bejel, caused by T. pallidum subsp. endemicum , occurs mostly in children and is mainly found in the eastern Mediterranean, West Africa, and Cuba ( 4 , 5 ). However, phylogenic analysis of lesion specimens from certain patients outside of areas where bejel is endemic who had received a diagnosis of syphilis revealed that T. pallidum subsp. endemicum might be sexually transmitted. These patients have a clinical course similar to syphilis ( 5 – 8 ). For this report, T. pallidum subsp. pallidum will be abbreviated to T. pallidum unless further distinction between the subspecies is necessary.

T. pallidum causes a systemic infection and might lead to serious sequalae in multiple organ systems, including the central nervous system (CNS) and the ocular and otic systems. Vertical transmission can cause congenital syphilis, which might result in spontaneous abortions, miscarriages, or stillbirths; infants with congenital syphilis can have clinical signs of infection at birth or months to years after birth. Clinical features in adults progress through different stages beginning with primary syphilis, which often appears about 3 weeks after exposure, with an incubation period of 10–90 days ( 9 ). Primary syphilis is characterized by single or multiple ulcerative-like lesions (chancres) that often are painless and therefore might be unnoticed when they occur inside the mouth, vagina, or rectum. Chancres can persist for 2–6 weeks before healing spontaneously. Secondary syphilis typically begins 2–24 weeks after most primary lesions heal and is commonly characterized by a mucocutaneous rash appearing on the trunk, palms, and soles; mucous patches in the mouth or condylomata lata on the genitals or rectum occur in approximately one fourth of patients. Primary and secondary syphilis symptoms can occur concurrently, which is more likely in persons with HIV infection. Moist primary and secondary syphilis lesions contain infectious T. pallidum that can be transmitted through sexual contact to susceptible persons. Secondary clinical manifestations also can consist of lymphadenopathy, alopecia, and occasionally neurologic and ocular manifestations. Signs and symptoms of secondary syphilis typically resolve in approximately 3 months, with a range of 1–12 months ( 10 , 11 ) but can periodically recur for the first several years of infection in ≤25% of untreated persons ( 12 ).

The interval between primary to secondary and secondary to tertiary syphilis is known as latency when no symptoms or signs of syphilis are present. The interval from secondary to tertiary syphilis can last for years or decades before symptoms appear. In up to two thirds of patients, the disease can remain latent for life and never progress to tertiary syphilis ( 13 – 15 ). Latent asymptomatic syphilis is divided into three categories: early latent infections thought to have been acquired within the past year; late latent infections thought to be longer than 1 year duration; and latent syphilis of unknown duration where the timing of acquisition cannot be determined based on available clinical, historical, or laboratory data. Clinical signs of tertiary syphilis, a rare condition, include cardiovascular syphilis, with aneurysms or stenosis resulting from multiplication of treponemal spirochetes in the thoracic aorta or coronary arteries; syphilitic gummas, with soft granulomatous growths that can cause tissue destruction in any organ system including bones and cartilage; and neurosyphilis, with late neurologic manifestations including tabes dorsalis and general paresis. Neurosyphilis can occur during any stage of syphilis and can be asymptomatic or symptomatic during any stage of infection.

Rationale for New CDC Recommendations

Syphilis, a nationally notifiable disease with approximately 176,000 cases in the United States reported to the CDC in 2021 ( 16 ) and approximately 6 million new cases occurring worldwide ( 17 ), is caused by T. pallidum . A syphilis epidemic is occurring in the United States, with sustained increases in primary and secondary syphilis from 5,979 cases reported in 2000 to 133,945 cases reported in 2020, a 2,140% increase ( 16 , 18 ). The epidemic is characterized by health disparities, particularly among sexual and gender minority populations, intersections with the HIV and substance use epidemics, and increased morbidity and mortality attributable to congenital syphilis infections ( 16 ).

Laboratories have a critical role in the public health response to the syphilis epidemic. The responsibility of the laboratory is to test specimens and report results in a timely manner, allowing clinicians to efficiently make clinical diagnoses for patient management. Public health reporting by laboratories also allows local health departments and CDC to conduct surveillance and monitor disease trends. This report details CDC’s new recommendations for syphilis testing, including laboratory-based tests, point-of-care (POC) tests, processing of samples, and reporting of test results to aid laboratorians and clinicians in the diagnosis of syphilis. Future revisions to these recommendations will be based on new research or technologic advancements for syphilis clinical laboratory science.

These recommendations were developed by CDC staff members on the basis of evidence published in peer-reviewed scientific journals. Data available in Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-cleared syphilis diagnostic test inserts were reviewed and assessed for consistency with published findings. In 2017, the Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL) assisted with the literature review through an independent work group formed to evaluate the scientific literature for CDC to consider in the development of evidence-based recommendations for syphilis testing in the United States. APHL work group members were selected based on expertise in the field of syphilis and represented public health and commercial laboratory directors, public- and private-sector providers, and academic researchers. The work group leads were experienced in conducting systematic reviews of the literature. Potential conflicts of interest were disclosed to APHL and are listed at the end of the work group (Supplementary Appendix 1, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). APHL staff members reviewed potential conflicts and concluded that no work group members had a financial interest or ongoing relationships that might bias the literature review and subsequent discussions. The APHL work group did not rank the evidence and did not make any recommendations based on the scientific literature review. CDC staff members involved in ranking the evidence and drafting recommendations based on the scientific literature certified that they did not have a perceived or actual competing interest with respect to this activity.

CDC identified key questions regarding syphilis testing in the United States that should be addressed during the literature review process and shared these questions with the APHL work group members in March 2017. Work group members were assigned key questions to review (Supplementary Appendix 2, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ) and, with the assistance of CDC and APHL staff members, conducted an extensive literature search on Medline, Embase, Scopus, Cochrane Library, and CINAHL; combinations of search terms for each key question were used to search for literature published during January 1–June 30, 2017 (Supplementary Appendix 2, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). The wide time interval was necessary because certain tests have been used for almost a century. In November 2017, work group members presented their reviews to CDC and APHL staff members. Key questions and pertinent publications were reviewed for strengths, weaknesses, and relevance and were discussed by individual work group members. The discussions were informal and not designed to reach consensus; no formal rating system was used. Background papers summarizing the evidence reviewed were peer reviewed and published in July 2020 ( 19 – 23 ). Subsequently, CDC staff members used the same search criteria and evidence review ranking methods described previously to identify articles published through September 1, 2022.

After the November 2017 meeting, the APHL work group was disbanded. CDC staff members reviewed the scientific evidence and ranked the evidence as high, medium, or low on the basis of each study’s strengths and weaknesses as outlined by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Ratings ( https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/us-preventive-services-task-force-ratings ). Studies were rated A if they were high quality using clinically characterized specimens, were stratified by stage, had larger sample size, were prospective, or were well-done cross-sectional or retrospective studies. B-rated studies were good to moderate quality with large sample sizes, were clinically characterized but not stratified by stage, or were characterized but unclear exactly how it was done with mild methodological issues. C-rated studies were fair quality and included those with small sample sizes, moderate methodological issues, used a single laboratory test as gold standard, or were descriptive. D-rated studies were poor quality and included studies with major methodologic issues or small sample sizes. Case reports or small case studies were rated as I. Studies that were not relevant to the key question were assigned as NR and not further rated. The recommendations were based on high-ranking scientific evidence from A- and B-ranked studies that would result in a net benefit for the diagnosis of syphilis and ultimately patient care (Supplementary Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). CDC staff members considered harms and benefits to patients when formulating these recommendations so that studies with misleading or poor data that might lead to a net harm for patient care because of inaccurate laboratory testing were not included. Other factors (e.g., cost-benefit) also were considered and included in this report.

Draft recommendations were peer reviewed as defined by the Office of Management and Budget for influential scientific information ( https://wcms-wp.cdc.gov/os/quality/support/peer-review.htm ). In February 2022, draft recommendations were peer reviewed by four experts in the field of syphilis who were not U.S Federal employees, were not funded by CDC for syphilis research, and were not involved in the development of these recommendations (Supplementary Appendix 3, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). Comments submitted during the external peer review were addressed, and the document was available for a 60-day public comment period beginning April 5, 2023. Draft recommendations were reviewed by subject matter experts and stakeholders, including APHL, the American Society for Microbiology, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS), and FDA. After the public comment and stakeholder review, CDC considered all comments in the development of final testing recommendations for syphilis.

Syphilis serologic tests were developed at the beginning of the 20th century and used by medical personnel to diagnose syphilis. The first test, known as the Wassermann test, was a complement fixation test that used liver extracts, initially from fetuses and subsequently from the heart tissue of patients with syphilis ( 24 ). The assay was further standardized to improve reproducibility by laboratories after the publication of a method to isolate cardiolipin and lecithin (phosphorylcholine) from beef heart and combine them with cholesterol as the antigens for these tests ( 25 ). Subsequent tests involving immobilization of T. pallidum , agglutination, or flocculation were based on the same principle of detecting serum that reacted to T. pallidum ( T. pallidum immobilization [TPI] test) or to antigens found in the membranes of T. pallidum (cardiolipin [diphosphatidylglycerol], phosphorylcholine, and cholesterol) used in the rapid plasma reagin (RPR) and Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) tests. In 1954, the World Health Organization convened an expert committee on treponematoses and made recommendations regarding antigen preparation, standardization of tests, and terminology ( 26 ). The terminology was based on the understanding of the contemporaneous scientific findings and became the basis for which to describe the serologic testing concepts for syphilis that are still used today ( 27 ). Over time, the use of the terms nontreponemal tests, treponemal tests, and nonspecific antibodies should be revisited and updated to be consistent with the scientific evidence related to the immunobiology of T. pallidum .

Immunobiology

T. pallidum are obligate microaerophilic spirochete bacteria with a flexuous, flat-wave morphology that range from 5 to 20 μ m in length and 0.1 to 0.4 μ m in diameter ( 28 ). The protoplasm is enclosed by a cell wall composed of a cytoplasmic membrane, a thin peptidoglycan layer, and a simple lipid bilayer outer membrane ( 29 , 30 ). The bacterial structure is similar to other gram-negative bacteria (e.g., a periplasmic space separates the cytoplasmic and outer membranes). However, in contrast to most other gram-negative bacteria, the outer membrane of T. pallidum is extremely fragile, lacks a lipopolysaccharide outer layer, has the peptidoglycan layer above the cytoplasmic membrane rather than beneath the outer membrane, and has approximately a 100-fold lower density of proteins that span the membrane ( 2 , 31 – 36 ). The organism exhibits corkscrew-like motility, rotating around its longitudinal axis that is provided by endoflagella located in the periplasmic space and wrapped around the cell body ( 37 – 39 ). The relatively few integral membrane proteins, exposed lipoproteins, and phospholipids likely make up the bacterial surface and contribute to its relative lack of surface antigenicity ( 30 , 40 ).

After entry through the mucosa or microabrasions in the skin, T. pallidum replicates locally and quickly spreads throughout the body, including the CNS, through the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems ( 41 ). The dearth of pathogen-associated molecular patterns on the cell surface of T. pallidum contributes to the inability of the innate immune system to clear the organism during primary infection and subsequent dissemination ( 42 ). Activation of the innate immune system might be downregulated by a treponemal phospholipid found in the outer membrane ( 43 ). However, dendritic cells phagocytize T. pallidum early during infection, and most migrate to draining lymph nodes where they present processed treponemal antigens (mostly protein antigens) to B- and T-cells to initiate adaptive immune responses ( 44 ).

Antigens that are processed and presented by phagocytic cells during T. pallidum infection are either unique to the organism or common to the organism, host cells, or both. Cardiolipin, a diphosphatidylglycerol, is an integral mitochondrial cell membrane phospholipid required for proper mitochondrial function ( 45 ). B1 cells, a subset of B-cells, secrete antibodies of low to moderate affinity in the absence of activation by previous infection ( 46 ). The B1-secreted antibodies are referred to as natural antibodies, and they can bind to cardiolipin and other phospholipids (e.g., cholesterol and phosphatidylcholine). However, other infections or conditions, in addition to syphilis and autoimmune diseases, can cause a transient increase in natural antibodies against cardiolipin ( 47 ). The cytoplasmic membrane of T. pallidum contains cardiolipin and other phospholipids that can contribute to immune stimulation during infection ( 48 , 49 ). Cholesterol and phosphatidylcholine are host phospholipids that are also constituent macromolecules in the T. pallidum cytoplasmic membrane ( 48 ). Phosphorylcholine can be a target for protective immunity, as demonstrated by the bactericidal effect of a monoclonal antibody binding to this antigen on the surface of T. pallidum ( 50 ). Antibodies to both cholesterol and phosphatidylcholine are elevated during certain stages of infection with T. pallidum ( 51 ) and are detected by RPR and VDRL tests.

Syphilis Serologic Laboratory Testing Terminology

Nontreponemal test.

Antibodies that reacted to the lipoidal antigens used in the Wassermann and subsequent agglutination or flocculation tests were either an indication of a concomitant T. pallidum infection or another condition related to host tissue damage and release of lipoidal antigens. The term nontreponemal test was first used in the literature in 1960 to differentiate tests based on antigens specific to T. pallidum (TPI, fluorescent treponemal antibody-absorption [FTA-ABS], microhemaggluntination assay for antibodies to T. pallidum [MHA-TP], T. pallidum hemagglutination assay [TPHA], and T. pallidum particle agglutination [TPPA]) from tests based on antigens (i.e., cardiolipin, phosphatidylcholine, and cholesterol) found in healthy animal tissues and other organisms in addition to T. pallidum and used in VDRL and RPR tests. The lipid composition of T. pallidum was first described in 1979 when it was reported that the organism contained all the phospholipids used in nontreponemal tests ( 48 ). Genomic analysis of T. pallidum further revealed the lack of certain enzymes for biosynthetic pathways necessary for these cytoplasmic and outer membrane phospholipids, indicating an inherent requirement for phospholipids from the host ( 52 ).

The increase in antibodies to cardiolipin, phosphatidylcholine, and cholesterol during T. pallidum infection is likely the result of a combination of antigens from both the bacteria and the host, not just from host tissue damage. In a rabbit model, T. pallidum cardiolipin induced a high antibody titer during active infection ( 49 ). Inoculating rabbits with inactivated T. pallidum resulted in a lower anticardiolipin titer, suggesting the increased response observed during active infection was attributable to immune stimulation from a combination of cardiolipin released from T. pallidum and damaged host cells ( 49 ). Because the antigens used in nontreponemal tests are found in T. pallidum membranes and host membranes, referring to these tests as nontreponemal is a misnomer. A 2019 study demonstrated that 11% of 526,540 reactive nontreponemal tests were not associated with syphilis, and in those cases, the tests were detecting antibodies to nontreponemal antigens generated by host tissue damage from other diseases ( 53 ). However, 89% of the reactive tests were associated with syphilis, implying that most nontreponemal tests detect antibodies triggered by T. pallidum phospholipid antigens during infection. Purported nontreponemal tests could more accurately be called lipoidal antigen tests. Hereafter in this report, these tests will be referred to as nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests.

Treponemal Test

The term treponemal test was introduced in 1960 along with nontreponemal tests ( 54 ). Treponemal test remains an accurate description of a test that detects an antibody response to antigens specific to T. pallidum .

Nonspecific Antibodies

The term nonspecific antibodies has been used in the syphilis literature to characterize antibodies that are not specific to T. pallidum but are detected in nontreponemal tests. All antibodies bind to specific epitopes on an antigen and are specific to that antigen. However, the antibodies might not be specific for the detection of the disease or condition for which the test is ordered; thus, their presence affects the test specificity. Reporting antibody specificity and the effect on test specificity rather than using the blanket term nonspecific antibodies would be more accurate.

Indications for syphilis testing include identification of individual, population, or community risk factors for exposure to T. pallidum; signs and symptoms suggestive of syphilis; or a known sexual contact of someone who has syphilis. The selection of laboratory tests and interpretation of results vary by stage of syphilis and previous treatment history. After diagnosis and staging has occurred, benzathine penicillin G is the recommended therapy for clinical resolution of infection and avoidance of sequelae ( 55 ). Patients with a history of penicillin allergy should be managed according to CDC’s Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021 ( 55 ).

Testing for syphilis is based on the detection of reactive antibodies (typically in serum or cerebrospinal fluid [CSF]), suggestive of exposure to T. pallidum; direct observation of the organism by darkfield or fluorescent microscopy of lesion fluids or exudate; or histologic assessment of infected tissues or amplification of T. pallidum- specific nucleic acid sequences in fluids, exudate, or tissue biopsy material. Conventional microscopy used to examine Gram-stained smears is insufficient to visualize T. pallidum because of the bacterium’s slender morphology and poor uptake of aniline dyes ( 51 ). No available nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) are cleared by FDA for marketing in the United States, and culture for T. pallidum is cumbersome and is available only in selected research laboratories. Nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests are most suitable for screening or diagnosis in conjunction with a medical history and physical examination when antibody titers are important to determine recent exposure to infection, a presumptive diagnosis in persons with signs or symptoms suggestive of syphilis, or to determine response to treatment.

Treponemal tests target specific T. pallidum antigens, either intact or sonicated T. pallidum or defined recombinant proteins; these tests were traditionally used to confirm that a reactive nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test is the result of T. pallidum infection ( 51 ). Treponemal antibodies generally persist after treatment and cannot be used to distinguish between a current infection or a previously treated infection. None of the nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) or treponemal tests can distinguish infections caused by other T. pallidum subspecies. Multiple capillary whole blood immunoassays for which the specimen is collected by skin puncture have been developed as rapid tests and might offer diagnostic utility in clinical, public health, or nonclinical settings. Direct detection tests of T. pallidum are limited to darkfield microscopic examination of lesion fluids, staining of lesion fluid or exudate smears or tissue sections obtained by biopsy for treponemal spirochetes, or amplification of specific nucleic acid sequences by validated laboratory-developed tests.

Nontreponemal (Lipoidal Antigen) Tests

Nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests typically have been used as a screening test for syphilis, as a diagnostic test when patients have signs or symptoms suggestive of syphilis or have a known sexual contact, when assessing possible reinfections, and when monitoring treatment outcome ( Figure 1 ). RPR and VDRL tests are still the primary screening methods used in public health laboratories in the United States ( 56 ); other FDA-cleared nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests (e.g., the toluidine red unheated serum test [TRUST] and unheated serum reagin test [USR]) are available but are less commonly used in the United States. Regardless of which test method is applied, serum antibody titers from RPR, VDRL, and other nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests should not be used interchangeably to manage patients because they are different test methods and the subjective titer results can vary by laboratory. Therefore, patient specimens should be tested using the same nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test method and specimen type.

The manual nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests are flocculation tests that detect antibody-antigen complexes that fall out of solution as a precipitate. Microscopic or macroscopic procedures have been developed to detect the precipitate that forms after specific binding of antibodies to a combination of cardiolipin, cholesterol, and phosphatidylcholine that are used as antigens in nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests. VDRL tests are read microscopically at 100x magnification ( 51 ). The RPR test uses charcoal to aid in detection of the flocculant, and the results can be read macroscopically because the antigen-antibody lattice traps the charcoal particles. The TRUST test uses toluidine red dye in place of charcoal.

Nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests are usually performed manually; however, certain RPR tests have been automated for higher throughput. The automated systems digitally analyze the density and size of antibody-antigen flocculation and store results for future retrieval ( 57 – 59 ). Results from any nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test should be reported as an endpoint titer, and not with greater or less than values, to allow for optimal clinical interpretation. Certain automated RPR tests have a constrained serum dilution range (e.g., 1:40–1:64) that might be incapable of generating an endpoint titer beyond this range. In these situations, the titer range of the automated test must be considered, and specimens should require reflex testing using a manual RPR procedure to establish an endpoint titer at either the lower or upper bounds before reporting.

Whether automated or manual, performance depends on multiple factors, including specimen type and quality, stage of syphilis, presence of autoimmune or other diseases, and presence of infections or coinfections with organisms other than T. pallidum . Nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests might be less sensitive than treponemal tests in early primary syphilis and tend to wane with time regardless of treatment. Before testing, test and specimen type should be carefully considered because serum and plasma cannot always be used interchangeably, and certain nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests require heat treatment of specimens.

The subjective nature of results interpretation for manual tests as well as variability among laboratories and technicians pose challenges for clinicians who compare titers with stage of syphilis for treatment purposes, especially when assessing possible reinfection or monitoring treatment outcomes. One caveat of nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests is that a reactive result could be a false positive because of recent conditions (e.g., infections, vaccinations or injection drug use, or underlying autoimmune or other chronic conditions). Nonetheless, when performed by an experienced laboratory technician and used in conjunction with treponemal tests, clinical history, physical examination, and contact history, the nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests are a highly reliable testing method for screening and determining the endpoint titer for subsequent serologic monitoring posttreatment.

Serologic Response After Treatment

Nontreponemal antibody titers usually decrease at least fourfold during the 12 months after syphilis treatment (Figure 1), particularly among persons treated during the early stages of infection, and might become nonreactive over time, especially among patients treated before the secondary stage of syphilis ( 60 – 62 ). However, in certain persons, the decrease in nontreponemal antibody titers is less than fourfold despite recommended treatment. A prospective randomized, double-blind, multisite study of therapy for early syphilis (n = 541) found that 14% of patients had a less than fourfold serologic titer decline 12 months posttreatment; patients living with HIV infection who had primary or secondary syphilis were more likely to have an inadequate response than those without HIV infection ( 60 ). In addition, titers might not serorevert to a nonreactive result after treatment and remain persistently reactive, often referred to as the serofast state. This state is most common in persons treated ≥1 year after acquiring syphilis or in persons with multiple episodes of syphilis. Titers are typically ≤1:8, but higher titers also have been observed ( 63 , 64 ). Additional recommendations regarding clinical interpretation of nontreponemal titers are available in CDC’s Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021 ( 55 ). Clinicians can consult with the STD Clinical Consultation Network for assistance with complex cases of titer interpretation ( https://stdccn.org/render/Public ).

Recommendation for endpoint titers. Endpoint titers (the highest dilution yielding a reactive result) should be determined and clearly reported when testing serum with nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) assays that detect antibodies to lipoidal antigens (i.e., RPR and VDRL). Reports should not contain mathematical symbols such as > or < signs ( Box ).

Comment and evidence summary. Antibody titers measured by nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests can correlate with infection status and are the only tests available to monitor treatment outcome ( 60 , 62 ). A fourfold change in titer between two results with the same nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests is considered clinically significant ( 55 ). Titers need to be reported for appropriate clinical management. Serum samples tested with certain automated RPR tests that are outside the dilution range of the test should be reflex tested using a manual RPR.

The detection of antigen-antibody interactions in agglutination or flocculation assays is dependent on the formation of antigen-antibody complexes that clump cells in agglutination tests or aggregates of small particles known as floccules. Many epitopes on an antigen can be bound by an antibody specific to the antigen. Immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies have two binding sites and immunogloubulin M (IgM) antibodies have 10 binding sites that can bind up to 10 identical antigens, respectively. As these interactions continue, a lattice structure can develop and become sufficiently large to cause agglutination or flocculation. The level of agglutination or flocculation varies depending on the relative concentrations of antigen and specific antibodies. Agglutination and flocculation assays standardize the antigen concentrations to maximize the formation of a lattice in a reactive test. Excess antibodies in serum or antigens in the assay can interfere with the development of a lattice if each antibody molecule binds to a single (instead of two) antigen epitope ( Figure 2 ). In this case, cross-linking fails to occur and a lattice will not form, which can occur especially in an undiluted serum specimen. This false-negative phenomenon is referred to as a prozone or hook effect because it occurs before the zone of equivalence where the concentration of antibodies and antigens are sufficient for agglutination or flocculation. A prozone can be avoided if the serum sample is diluted before testing. False-negative results attributable to a prozone have been reported for nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) but not for agglutination-based treponemal tests ( 51 , 65 ).

In two studies of 4,328 and 46,856 patients who had specimens referred for syphilis testing, false-negative RPR tests caused by a prozone were rare (<0.85%) ( 65 , 66 ). In one study, prozone in an RPR test occurred at all stages of syphilis but was more common during primary and secondary syphilis (4.7% and 1.8%, respectively) ( 65 ). Diluting serum can remove the prozone; however, no specific dilution values can ensure all effects of a prozone are removed. In the same study, among 36 serum samples with a prozone, 11 required serial dilutions from 1:8 to 1:16 to remove the prozone; 22 of these 36 samples required dilutions ranging from 1:32 to 1:128 for the optimal concentration of antibodies and antigens for agglutination ( 65 ). Two samples continued to have a prozone until they were diluted to 1:256 and one to 1:512. Because the prozone phenomenon is considered rare in a general population screened for syphilis, routinely diluting all nonreactive, undiluted nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests is not recommended. However, laboratories should rule out a prozone using a dilution series for a nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test when requested by a clinician. A clinician should request a prozone rule out if a patient with signs or symptoms suggestive of syphilis has a nonreactive, undiluted nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test result or when unusual graininess is observed in the test of undiluted serum.

Biologic False Positive

A nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test that is reactive for conditions other than syphilis is referred to as a biologic false positive (BFP). Persons with antibodies that are reactive in the nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests, but are nonreactive in a confirmatory treponemal test, are defined as BFP reactors. Health departments frequently retain records of persons with known BFP reactions; these data can assist clinicians in a future evaluation of possible syphilis infection in such persons. Reactive nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests attributable to BFP have been estimated to occur in 0.2%–0.8% of the population and are associated with medical conditions other than syphilis ( 67 – 71 ). BFP reactions are attributable to other infections including malaria, leprosy, and HIV; recent vaccinations; autoimmune disorders; and injection drug use ( 51 ).

Treponemal Tests

Treponemal tests are clinically used to confirm results of reactive nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests and evaluate patients with signs suggestive of syphilis in early primary infection when nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests might not yet be reactive. Treponemal tests can also be automated for high throughput screening in blood banks and in large laboratories for routine screening using the reverse sequence algorithm. Antibodies detected in treponemal tests typically persist for life despite treatment unless treatment occurs early in the course of infection; approximately 15%–25% of patients treated for primary syphilis can revert to a nonreactive treponemal test (FTA-ABS and MHA-TP) result within 2–3 years after treatment ( 61 , 62 ). In these two studies, no patients treated for secondary syphilis or stages of longer duration of infection seroreverted the reactive treponemal test. Seroreversion of treponemal tests can also occur in patients with advanced HIV disease and AIDS ( 72 , 73 ).

No published data are available that examined whether reversion to a nonreactive treponemal test occurs with an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) or a chemiluminescence immunoassays (CIA) after treatment for syphilis. Treponemal tests, unlike nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests, cannot be used to monitor response to therapy because they remain reactive indefinitely. In patients with a history of treated syphilis and reactive treponemal test results, additional treponemal testing is not helpful for detecting reinfection and is not recommended. In this case, nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) testing titers along with clinical history of syphilis, physical examination, and sexual risk assessment, including contact history, must be used to determine infection status.

Manual treponemal tests include FTA-ABS, TPPA, Captia Syphilis IgG EIA, Trep-Sure EIA, and Zeus Scientific EIA. Manual assays are typically used as reflex tests to confirm reactive nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) specimens in the traditional testing algorithm. The FTA-ABS test is based on florescence microscopy and uses a fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled antihuman immunoglobulin to detect antibody binding to whole T. pallidum that has been fixed on a glass slide. TPPA is an indirect agglutination assay with T. pallidum antigens bound to gelatin particles.

The manual TPHA and MHA-TP tests are no longer available for in vitro diagnostics in the United States but are still used in certain international settings. TPHA and MHA-TP are indirect agglutination with T. pallidum antigens bound to avian or ovine erythrocytes. MHA-TP is a microplate version of TPHA.

As of December 31, 2021, a total of 12 FDA-cleared automated treponemal immunoassays were available for clinical use, including EIA, CIA, and multiplex flow (microbead) immunoassays (MFIA). In contrast to the manual assays, the treponemal immunoassays are often run as the initial test in a reverse sequence screening algorithm. All FDA-cleared treponemal tests can be performed on serum; certain tests also can be performed on plasma, including heparin, EDTA, and citrate plasma. Certain laboratories also have also validated use of treponemal tests with dried blood spots (DBS); however, no available tests have been cleared by FDA for this specimen type, nor have data been published on DBS specimens collected in the United States to aid in the diagnosis of syphilis.

The reading output is typically an index value calculated as a signal to cutoff ratio (S/CO) or fluorescence ratio using values between the specimen and calibrator controls. Equivocal results should be retested according to algorithms in the package insert. The raw reading outputs and index values can be stored for future retrieval. The strength of the S/CO from immunoassays is an estimate of relative binding between molecules in the assay and has been researched as a predictor for positivity in hepatitis C and HIV confirmatory tests ( 74 – 78 ). When applied to treponemal immunoassays, multiple studies reported strong correlation between increasing index value strength and reactive results from an independent treponemal test or a combination of nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal tests, with most studies demonstrating 91%–100% correlation between S/CO cutoffs and TPPA positivity ( 79 – 84 ). Additional research is needed to establish test-specific cutoff values that are likely to be true positives for each of the FDA-cleared immunoassays. S/CO cutoff values could eliminate the need to adjudicate discrepant results between treponemal immunoassays and nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests with a second TPPA.

For discordant nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal test results, an additional treponemal test is recommended using a different type of treponemal test assay and target (e.g., TPPA). Until further data are available regarding the role of S/CO cutoffs in a screening algorithm, the cutoff value could be an additional data point to assess likelihood of infection in complex situations (e.g., among pregnant persons with low risk for syphilis). Clinicians with these types of cases should contact the STD Clinical Consultation Network for assistance ( https://stdccn.org/render/Public ).

Blood Bank Screening

Blood donations are required to be tested for antibodies to T. pallidum as outlined in 21 CFR 610.40(a)(2). Persons that donate blood found to be serologically reactive are deferred (21 CFR 610.41[a]) and notified (21 CFR 630.40). Updated FDA recommendations for screening blood donors for syphilis are available at https://www.fda.gov/media/85283/download . The list of tests to screen blood donations for infectious agents is available at https://www.fda.gov/vaccines-blood-biologics/complete-list-donor-screening-assays-infectious-agents-and-hiv-diagnostic-assays .

Traditional and Reverse Algorithms for Syphilis Screening

The traditional algorithm for syphilis serologic screening begins with a nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test, and any reactive specimens are tested for confirmation by a treponemal test ( Figure 3 ). This sequence has been widely used for decades because nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests were relatively inexpensive and treponemal tests were manual, labor intensive, more costly, and limited in number. However, automated treponemal immunoassays, which were originally cleared by FDA for blood bank screening, are now cleared by FDA for clinical screening, leading to the reverse sequence algorithm. Initial screening with an automated treponemal test of a sample with a positive result must be followed by a quantitative nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test. When the reverse sequence algorithm is used, any discordant results should be adjudicated by a second treponemal assay (e.g., TPPA) that has a different format and includes different antigens ( 85 ).

The number of clinical laboratories performing traditional, reverse, or both algorithms was assessed among 2,360 laboratories participating in the 2015 College of American Pathologists (CAP) syphilis serology proficiency testing program in the United States ( 86 ). Of the 1,911 laboratories that responded, 81.1% (n = 1,550) offered only one algorithm, 9.5% (n = 181) offered different algorithms depending on patient demographics or clinician preference, and 9.4% (n = 180) reported being uncertain whether a single algorithm was offered. Approximately two thirds of laboratories (63.1%; n = 1,205) reported using the traditional algorithm, 15.9% (n = 304) reported using the reverse sequence algorithm, 2.5% (n = 47) reported using both algorithms, 5.9% reported that they did not know, and 3.9% reported “other.” Of responding laboratories, 8.8% (n = 169) stated that they did not reflexively perform a confirmation test. A 2017 survey by APHL reported that 58 of 73 (79.5%) public health laboratories used the traditional algorithm, and 20.5% used the reverse algorithm ( https://www.aphl.org/aboutAPHL/publications/Documents/ID-2020Jan-2017-STD-Testing-Survey-Report.pdf ). The CAP and APHL surveys should be updated to track changes in clinical laboratory practices over time.

A prospective comparison of 1,000 patient samples from a population with a low prevalence of syphilis tested with both algorithms found 15 (1.5%) that were reactive by the reverse sequence algorithm starting with the BioPlex IgG and four (0.4%) that were reactive by the traditional algorithm with RPR as the first test ( 87 ). The four samples that were reactive by RPR were confirmed to be positive by TPPA. The false-positive EIA rate (e.g., EIA reactive, RPR nonreactive, and TPPA nonreactive) was higher in the reverse sequence algorithm than the traditional algorithm (0.6% versus 0%). CDC reported a similar false-positive rate for treponemal immunoassay (0.6%; 866 of 140,176) when using the reverse sequence algorithm during 2006–2010 ( 85 ).

Data are conflicting regarding the cost-effectiveness of the traditional versus the reverse sequence algorithm. The traditional algorithm might be more cost-effective (lower cost per adverse event prevented) in settings with a low prevalence of syphilis (approximately 0.5%) and cost saving in higher-prevalence settings (approximately 10%) ( 88 , 89 ). These data are not consistent with a study that reported the reverse sequence algorithm as being cost-effective when applied to screening lower-prevalence prenatal and nonprenatal populations with a syphilis prevalence of 0.076% and 1.94%, respectively ( 90 ). In an economic impact model on a local sexually transmitted diseases (STD) program in Los Angeles County, California, the reverse algorithm was less expensive and identified more patients for treatment if the cost of the treponemal test was $1.67 less than the nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test cost of $5.80 ( 91 ). Testing, treatment, and follow-up costs were included in the analysis. Applying 2015 test costs from the 2015 CMS laboratory fee schedule in which treponemal tests costs were three times more costly than nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests, the reverse sequence algorithm was more costly than the traditional algorithm. Each additional syphilis case detected would cost an estimated $1,242.17 when using reverse sequence algorithm with 2015 CMS test costs. These data highlight the need to consider local costs, including testing, treatment, and follow-up costs, when choosing the best algorithm for syphilis screening.

Each algorithm has advantages and disadvantages and both are acceptable ( Table 1 ). The traditional algorithm might be less sensitive in detecting early or late latent syphilis, although an increase in false positives might occur when applying the reverse algorithm in low-prevalence populations ( 22 ). The development of antibodies that react with nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal tests might take up to 2 weeks after primary infection with T. pallidum ( 92 , 93 ) (Figure 1). The main advantage of automated treponemal immunoassays in high-volume laboratories is increased throughput and reduced labor costs. Considerations for test and algorithm selection include cost, labor, volume of specimen test requests, throughput, laboratory space, and turnaround time. In addition, clinicians and state and local public health STD programs need nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test results coupled with treponemal test results for timely clinical management and public health reporting. If one test result in the algorithm is delayed and needs to be coupled with the initial test by the clinician or the STD program, matching errors can occur, and clinical management and reporting can be delayed. The laboratory processing the initial screening test should ensure the second or third (if necessary) test results, especially if performed in a different laboratory, are linked with the screening test result when the report is sent to the ordering clinician and public health department.

Recommendation for syphilis serologic testing algorithm. Serologic tests that measure antibodies to both nontreponemal (lipoidal) and treponemal antigens related to syphilitic infections should be used in combination, when the primary test is reactive, to aid in the diagnosis of syphilis (Box) (Figure 3). Sole reliance on one reactive serologic test result can misclassify a patient’s syphilis status. Both the traditional syphilis screening algorithm (initial screening with nontreponemal [lipoidal antigen] assays) and the reverse syphilis screening algorithm (initial screening with treponemal immunoassays) are acceptable. The preferred algorithm should be based on laboratory resources, including staff, space and costs, test volume, and patient populations served.

Comment and evidence summary. Antibodies detected by nontreponemal (lipoidal) and treponemal antigen tests vary by the stage of syphilis, treatment status, and past infection that was treated ( 92 ). Results from both types of serologic tests are required to help diagnose the stage of syphilis. Both traditional and reverse syphilis testing algorithms are used in the United States ( 86 ) and have about 99% concurrence between the two approaches ( 85 , 87 ). The cost-effectiveness of the two algorithms might vary by laboratory setting ( 88 – 91 ) and need to be considered by individual laboratories.

Serologic and CSF Antibody Specimen Collection and Storage

Serum, plasma, and CSF are specimen types that have been used in syphilis assays that detect antibodies against T. pallidum . This section provides general guidance because the information is summarized from various sources including product inserts and manuals on standard laboratory practices ( 51 , 94 ). Product inserts should be reviewed for optimal specimen type, transport, and storage because they vary by test. Health care providers should contact laboratories for additional information on sample volumes for collection if additional tests are to be performed.

Serum Collection Devices and Storage

Serum is the most common specimen used for syphilis serologic assays. Whole blood is collected by a trained phlebotomist using a vacutainer tube without an anticoagulant, coagulants, or a serum separator component. The use of vacuum tubes with serum separators or coagulants has not been widely evaluated with syphilis serology tests and should be avoided unless stated as an acceptable collection device in the test’s product insert. The volume of whole blood collected should be approximately 2.5 times the volume of serum required for the test. Approximately 1 mL of serum is enough to process both nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal syphilis serology tests, with extra reserved for repeat testing if needed. Collecting more serum should be considered if tests for conditions other than syphilis tests are requested. After collection of whole blood, the tube should be left undisturbed at room temperature for approximately 15–30 minutes to allow for clot formation. Vacutainer tube or other tubes containing whole blood should not be refrigerated because lower temperatures will increase clotting time. Serum can be aspirated if the clot has retracted or after centrifugation at 1,000–2,000 xg for 10 minutes. Serum should be transferred into a clean polypropylene tube for shipping or storage. Serum should be stored at 2°C–8°C (35.6°F–46.4°F) and tested within 5 days or frozen at ≤−20°C (−4°F) for longer storage. Serum should not be stored in frost-free freezers because the freeze-thaw cycles in these appliances are detrimental to the stability of frozen serum samples. However, recommended storage conditions vary among tests, and the product insert should be reviewed for up-to-date information. Samples should be free of hemolysis ( https://www.cdc.gov/ncezid/dvbd/specimensub/hemolysis-palette.html ), icterus, bacterial contamination, and lipemia. Serum should be aliquoted for storage to avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles that could result in diminished antibody reactivity because of protein degradation and denaturation.

Plasma Collection Devices and Storage

Plasma is acceptable for certain qualitative and quantitative syphilis serologic assays. Whole blood is collected by a trained phlebotomist using a vacutainer tube with an anticoagulant, including EDTA-treated, citrate-treated, or heparinized tubes. The blood volume collected should be approximately 2.5 times the volume of plasma required. Approximately 1 mL is enough plasma to process both nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal syphilis tests, with extra reserved for repeat testing if needed. Cells are removed from plasma by centrifugation at 1,000–2,000 xg for 10 minutes. The supernatant plasma should be immediately transferred to a clean polypropylene tube and tested 1–5 days after collection, depending on the test. The time that plasma can be successfully stored is typically shorter than for serum, although storage conditions vary among tests and certain ones allow for longer-term storage of plasma if frozen. The product insert should be reviewed for up-to-date information. Samples should be free of hemolysis ( https://www.cdc.gov/ncezid/dvbd/specimensub/hemolysis-palette.html ), icterus, bacterial contamination, and lipemia. Plasma should be aliquoted for storage to avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles that could result in diminished antibody reactivity by tests because of protein degradation and denaturation.

CSF Collection Devices and Storage

Only medical personnel qualified to perform lumbar puncture can collect CSF. Approximately 1 mL of CSF, placed into a clean polypropylene tube, is enough CSF for syphilis serologic testing, with extra remaining for repeat testing if needed. A larger volume of CSF might be required for additional tests (e.g., protein, cell count, Gram stain, or culture). If testing is delayed more than 4 hours, store the CSF sample at 2°C–8°C (35.6°F–46.4°F) for ≤5 days. After 5 days, CSF should be stored frozen at ≤−20°C (−4°F). Blood contamination, which could cause a false-positive result because of the presence of serum-derived antibodies rather than CSF-produced antibodies, should be avoided when collecting CSF specimens.

Serologic and CSF Antibody Test Performance

Sensitivity of serologic tests for primary syphilis.

Estimating the sensitivity of nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests during primary syphilis is best assessed when direct detection of T. pallidum is used as the comparator test to ensure proper staging of syphilis for the analysis. The sensitivity of RPR when compared with darkfield microscopy of lesion exudate ranged from 48.7% to 76.1% ( 95 – 101 ); however, one study reported a sensitivity of 92.7% (n = 109 patients) ( 102 ) (Supplementary Table 1, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). VDRL had a similar sensitivity range (50.0%–78.4%) ( 95 – 99 , 102 – 107 ). One head-to-head comparison study of RPR and VDRL nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests from 76 patients with primary syphilis confirmed by darkfield microscopy demonstrated a sensitivity of 48.7% and 50.0% for RPR and VDRL, respectively ( 101 ). Studies that used a NAAT to detect T. pallidum nucleic acid from a lesion swab and staged primary syphilis on the basis of clinical examination findings and a positive NAAT reported that nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test sensitivity ranged from 80% to 95% ( 108 – 112 ). Studies using NAAT as the reference standard rather than darkfield microscopy in lesions suggestive of primary syphilis suggest that nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests might be more sensitive than previously thought.

The sensitivity of manual treponemal tests in primary syphilis has been estimated from studies that used reference standards such as darkfield microscopy ( 95 , 102 , 113 – 115 ), clinical findings ( 116 – 118 ), or stored serum collected from patients staged as having primary syphilis, although the criteria used to stage the disease were not fully described ( 119 – 123 ) (Supplementary Table 2, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). MHA-TP had a sensitivity of 53.0%, 72.5%, and 88.6% in studies that used darkfield microscopy as the reference standard ( 102 , 113 , 118 ). In studies that used stored sera collected from patients who were clinically classified as having primary syphilis, MHA-TP had a sensitivity of 45.9%, 64% and, 88.6% ( 114 , 118 , 123 ). A 2019 study involving 959 patients, 55 of whom were classified as having primary syphilis (on the basis of serology, physical findings, and positive or negative darkfield microscopy) reported a sensitivity of 78.2% (95% CI = 65.0%–88.2%) and 94.5% (95% CI = 84.9%–98.9%) for FTA-ABS and TPPA, respectively ( 115 ). Other studies with fewer patients, different reference standards, or both are more difficult to compare; sensitivities of FTA-ABS and TPPA have ranged from 88.4% to 100% and 86.2% to 100%, respectively, for primary syphilis ( 102 , 113 , 114 , 117 , 118 , 122 – 127 ).

Among the automated treponemal immunoassays, few published data are available on test performance stratified by stage. One study found similar sensitivity for the ADVIA Centaur, Bioplex 2200 Syphilis IgG, Diasorin Liaison, and Trep-Sure in primary syphilis compared with TPPA and FTA-ABS ( 115 ); however, another study of 52 patients found poorer sensitivity of Trep-Sure in primary syphilis (53.8%; 95% CI = 39.5%–67.8%) ( 121 ).

Nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal tests might not yet be reactive in certain persons with primary syphilis, particularly those with very recently appearing lesions. Using darkfield microscopy as the sole comparator will skew results toward lower sensitivities because persons with early lesions are more likely to have a positive test by darkfield microscopy and be seronegative. Lesions of longer duration might become negative by darkfield microscopy because of immune clearance, but these persons are more likely to be seropositive. NAATs might be positive in both early and older lesions because this test method is not dependent on visualization of motile organisms. Additional studies of genital, anal, and oral lesions using both darkfield microscopy and NAATs as the reference standard, including studies that assess age of lesions, are needed to better refine the sensitivity estimates of nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal tests for primary syphilis.

Sensitivity of Serologic Tests for Secondary Syphilis

In studies that classified secondary syphilis on the basis of clinical diagnosis that included rash, mucocutaneous lesions or patchy alopecia, mucous patches, or condylomata lata; clinical diagnosis with visualized spirochetes on darkfield microscopy; or clinical diagnosis with reactive nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal serology, the sensitivity of both RPR and VDRL was 100% ( 96 – 99 , 101 , 103 , 105 , 128 – 131 ) (Supplementary Table 1, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). Only two studies reported an RPR sensitivity of <100% (91% and 97.2%) ( 99 , 101 ).

The sensitivity of the treponemal assay, MHA-TP, for secondary syphilis ranged from 96% to 100%, except in one study that reported 90% sensitivity ( 113 , 114 , 118 , 123 ) (Supplementary Table 2, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). The estimated sensitivity of FTA-ABS was >92% with six of eight studies reporting 100% ( 113 – 115 , 117 , 123 – 125 , 127 ). Of the two studies that found sensitivity to be <100% ( 115 , 124 ), FTA-ABS sensitivity was reported to be 92.8% (95% CI = 85.7%–97.0%) and 95.0% (95% CI = 76.4%–99.1%). TPPA was 100% sensitive in five studies ( 115 , 116 , 124 , 126 , 132 ). Among the automated treponemal immunoassays, few published data are available on test performance stratified by stage; however, the sensitivity of five treponemal immunoassays (Liaison, TrepSure, Bioplex 2200, ADVIA Centaur, and INNO-LIA) was estimated at 100% for secondary syphilis in one study of 98 patients ( 115 ).

The sensitivity of both nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal tests approaches 100% because of higher antibody titers during the secondary stage of syphilis. A prozone might need to be ruled out in specimens from patients with suspected secondary syphilis that are nonreactive in nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests. Because laboratorians typically do not know the patient’s stage of syphilis when the serologic specimen is submitted, clinicians should specifically request to assess for prozone when clinically indicated (e.g., in patients who have signs and symptoms of syphilis and nonreactive nontreponemal [lipoidal antigen] test results).

Sensitivity of Serologic Tests for Latent Syphilis

Data are limited on nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test performance in early latent and late latent stages of syphilis, with limited information regarding reference standards, previous treatment status, patient population risk for syphilis, and specific stage of latency ( 128 – 131 , 133 – 135 ). Furthermore, some international studies use different definitions of early and late syphilis than are used in the United States.

No studies involving RPR test performance for latent syphilis have been conducted in the United States. Two international studies conducted approximately 10 years ago and without stratification by duration of latency (i.e., early latent of <1 year versus late latent of >1 year) make estimates of sensitivities difficult ( 128 , 134 ). Three international studies on the performance of VDRL in cases of latent syphilis reported sensitivities that ranged from 82.1% to 100% for early latent syphilis of <1 year and from 63% to 66% for late latent syphilis of >1 year or of unknown duration; however, the studies were limited by small samples sizes (n≤72), making the results difficult to interpret ( 129 , 131 , 133 ) (Supplementary Table 1, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ).

The sensitivity of the manual treponemal tests (FTA-ABS, TPPA, and MHA-TP) ranged from 94.4% to 100% for the diagnosis of early latent syphilis; a wider range for late latent syphilis than early latent syphilis (84.5%–100%) has been reported ( 113 , 115 , 116 , 118 , 120 , 124 ) (Supplementary Table 2, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). Among the treponemal immunoassays, sensitivity ranged from 95% to 100% for early latent syphilis and from 91.7% to 100% for late latent syphilis ( 115 , 119 , 120 , 136 ) (Supplementary Table 2, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). Although the sensitivity of treponemal tests is generally high for early latent and late latent syphilis, the range of sensitivities identified in these studies suggests that additional studies are needed in larger samples where the duration of infection is better characterized. The duration of latency is often difficult to pinpoint; certain patients staged as late latent could have unknown latency duration, whereas other patients classified as late latent could have recently acquired their syphilis infection. This misclassification of duration of infection could falsely elevate the syphilis test performance sensitivity in patients with late latent syphilis.

The sensitivity of nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests decreases during latent syphilis of longer duration because the antibody detected by these test titers diminishes over time. Typically, treponemal tests remain reactive during latent syphilis.

Sensitivity of Serologic Tests for Tertiary Syphilis

Because tertiary syphilis is rare in the postantibiotic era, published data are very limited on the performance of serologic tests for diagnosis of tertiary syphilis (e.g., gummatous disease, late neurosyphilis, and cardiovascular syphilis); further studies are unlikely to be done. One study estimated the sensitivities of the FTA-ABS and VDRL at 70.6% and 47%, respectively, in 17 patients with tertiary syphilis ( 133 ), although the criteria for the stage of diagnosis were not stated. There were several studies that examined sensitivity of treponemal tests (Liaison CIA, Captia EIA, and FTA-ABS) for detection of cardiovascular syphilis. All studies estimated sensitivity to be 100%; however, sample sizes were extremely small (n = 1–21 cases) ( 119 , 120 , 123 , 137 , 138 ). The largest study of cardiovascular syphilis included 21 patients and found sensitivities of the MHA-TP and FTA-ABS were 89.5% and 100%, respectively ( 114 ). The sensitivity of nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests varies from 47% to 64% during tertiary syphilis ( 21 ), whereas treponemal tests remain reactive.

Specificity of Serologic Tests

Reference standards for specificity analyses varied widely and included apparently healthy volunteers, antenatal patients, syphilis-negative blood donors who were not living with HIV infection, and patients clinically characterized as not having syphilis (from serum banks or on the basis of previous test results or chart review). Certain studies of treponemal test specificity also used results from a different treponemal test or a consensus of a panel of treponemal tests as the reference standard.

Few head-to-head studies compared the specificity of RPR with VDRL specificity on well-characterized specimens. A study of 500 antenatal serum samples found little difference in specificity between VDRL and RPR (two versus one false positive, respectively) ( 139 ). Another study among 200 blood donors found VDRL was slightly less specific than RPR (98.5%, with RPR as the gold standard) ( 140 ).

For manual treponemal tests, one study found the specificity of FTA-ABS to be 87% (n = 128 patients) ( 141 ), whereas the specificity ranges of FTA-ABS and TPPA (95%–100% and 94%–100%, respectively) were similar in older studies ( 102 , 113 – 115 , 117 , 118 , 122 – 127 ). The specificity of the FTA-ABS test can be limited by laboratory expertise and quality control measures. For these reasons and on the basis of the recent high-quality, head-to-head study demonstrating superior TPPA test performance characteristics, the manual serologic TPPA test is preferred over the serologic FTA-ABS test. However, the CSF FTA-ABS can still help in excluding a neurosyphilis diagnosis because of its negative predictive value when performed in a laboratory experienced in the off-label use of this test. The immunoassays demonstrated specificity ranging from 94.5% to 100% ( 119 – 121 , 137 , 142 – 149 ); however, Trep-Sure was 82.6% (95% CI = 78.4%–86.1%) specific, significantly lower than the other immunoassays evaluated in a single head-to-head study of 959 patients ( 115 ).

Recommendation for serologic syphilis testing. Nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests (e.g., RPR or VDRL) are not interchangeable when used to determine antibody titers; testing on follow-up samples must be performed with the same type of test (Box). The TPPA test is the preferred manual treponemal test.

Comment and evidence summary. Sensitivity and specificity estimates of RPR and VDRL were similar but not exact in head-to-head studies and studies that used similar reference standards ( 95 – 99 , 101 – 104 , 106 – 108 , 111 , 112 , 139 ). When assessing changes in antibody titers using nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests, it is critical that the same test be used because titers are used by clinicians to classify the infection status of a patient and follow treatment response ( 55 ). A recent study with 959 patients estimated the sensitivity of FTA-ABS and TPPA to be 78.2% and 94.5%, respectively, when testing specimens from patients with primary syphilis ( 115 ). Two studies that tested specimens from patients with secondary syphilis reported a sensitivity of 92.8%–95.0% compared with 100% for TPPA ( 115 , 124 ). Many automated treponemal immunoassays are similar in sensitivity, and certain ones are slightly less specific when compared with the manual TPPA, except for the Trep-Sure test which has inferior specificity. Among the other immunoassays, data are insufficient to recommend one assay based on test performance.

CSF Antibody Tests for Neurosyphilis

Challenges associated with the diagnosis of neurosyphilis include a lack of consensus on the clinical implications of abnormal CSF findings in patients with no neurologic symptoms or signs but with serologic evidence of syphilis and poor distinction between asymptomatic and symptomatic patients in studies evaluating laboratory tests to aid in the diagnosis of neurosyphilis. In addition, the wide variation in reference standards that included CSF VDRL, CSF protein elevation and pleocytosis, CSF NAAT, CSF FTA-ABS, or other CSF treponemal and nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests, limited direct comparisons of CSF antibody test performance among neurosyphilis studies. Finally, the CSF VDRL is the only FDA-cleared test recommended to aid in the diagnosis of neurosyphilis. Although no treponemal test is FDA cleared to aid in the diagnosis of neurosyphilis, the CSF FTA-ABS has been used off-label for years in unique clinical circumstances for its negative predictive value (e.g., in patients with nonspecific neurologic signs or symptoms, reactive serologic tests, and a negative CSF VDRL, even if CSF lymphocytic pleocytosis and elevated CSF protein are present).

Because asymptomatic or symptomatic CNS invasion can occur in persons with primary, secondary, latent, or tertiary disease, serum examination can confirm the presence of syphilis but does not address CNS invasion or involvement. Examination of CSF is required to confirm CNS invasion but is only recommended in patients with reactive serologic tests and signs or symptoms suggestive of neurosyphilis; the clinical significance of CSF laboratory abnormalities in patients without any neurologic findings is unknown ( 55 ).

Nontreponemal (Lipoidal Antigen) Tests for Neurosyphilis

Manual nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests have been used to test CSF as an adjunct in cases of neurosyphilis, but performance estimates can vary widely depending on the reference standard. In three studies with a reference standard of detection of T. pallidum nucleic acid by NAAT on CSF, hearing or vision loss or neurologic signs and symptoms suggestive of neurosyphilis with a reactive CSF TPPA, or presence of at least 10 white blood cells in CSF and a positive CSF TPPA, sensitivity and specificity of CSF VDRL ranged from 66.7% to 85.7% and 78.2% to 86.7%, respectively, in 149–154 patients with neurosyphilis symptoms ( 150 , 151 ) (Supplementary Table 4, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). In these studies, CSF RPR sensitivity and specificity was 51.5%–81.8% and 89.7%–90.2%, respectively ( 150 , 151 ). CSF VDRL is the only FDA-cleared test to aid in the diagnosis of neurosyphilis.

Another study using a reference standard of reactive CSF FTS-ABS, increased CSF protein of >45 mg/dL, and CSF pleocytosis of ≥10 cells/mm 3 estimated the CSF VDRL sensitivity in eight patients with symptomatic neurosyphilis to be 87.5% ( 152 ). The study did not report CSF VDRL specificity stratified by asymptomatic and symptomatic neurosyphilis; however, the combined specificity was 99%. The sensitivity of CSF RPR in this study was estimated to be 100% in symptomatic patients. The combined specificity estimate for CSF RPR was 99.3%. No data are available for the performance of automated nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) RPR tests on CSF samples. Additional head-to-head studies with comparable high-quality, agreed-upon reference standards and well-characterized patient symptom status are needed to better understand CSF nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test performance.

Treponemal Tests for Neurosyphilis

The lack of a definitive diagnosis standard makes it difficult to interpret studies of the use of treponemal tests to support neurosyphilis diagnosis. Studies of treponemal test sensitivity in CSF included patients with symptomatic and asymptomatic neurosyphilis; various laboratory tests were used for the reference standard, including CSF white blood cell count, protein, and CSF-VDRL ( 153 ). Studies of test specificity included patients without syphilis as well as patients with syphilis but no symptoms suggestive of neurosyphilis. The variation in reference standards limits the ability to compare sensitivity and specificity estimates among studies. No CSF treponemal antibody tests are cleared by FDA to aid in the diagnosis of neurosyphilis.

Thirteen studies describing CSF FTA-ABS test performance were summarized in a previous systematic review ( 154 ). Sensitivity varied depending on whether the reference standard required reactive CSF-VDRL to meet the case definition (definitive neurosyphilis) or a combination of other criteria (presumptive neurosyphilis), including reactive nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) or treponemal CSF, other CSF indices (pleocytosis or elevated protein), rabbit inoculation, or clinical signs and symptoms.

In studies of definitive neurosyphilis, sensitivity of CSF FTA-ABS was 90.9%–100% ( 155 – 157 ). In the two largest studies of presumptive neurosyphilis (n = 60 and n = 156), CSF FTA-ABS demonstrated 100% sensitivity ( 158 , 159 ).

CSF FTA-ABS specificity varied greatly depending on whether true negatives were patients without syphilis or patients with syphilis but not symptomatic neurosyphilis. Six studies included patients without syphilis as true negatives, and CSF FTA-ABS specificity was 100%. In 11 studies that included patients with syphilis but not symptomatic neurosyphilis, the specificity ranged from 55% to 100% ( 154 ), likely because of passive diffusion of serum antibodies across an inflamed blood-brain barrier. This wide range of specificity in patients with syphilis but without neurologic symptoms could lead to false-positive results and overtreatment in these patients and in patients with nonspecific neurologic symptoms where the diagnosis of neurosyphilis is unlikely. A negative CSF FTA-ABS result can be clinically helpful to exclude neurosyphilis in complex cases where the cause of nonspecific neurologic signs or symptoms is most likely from other conditions.

Data are limited on the use of CSF TPPA in public health and commercial laboratories, and no studies have been published on the performance of automated treponemal immunoassays in CSF. For CSF TPPA, three studies reported sensitivities of 75.6%–95.0%; the highest sensitivities ranged from 83.3% to 95.0% when a reactive CSF-VDRL was the reference standard for neurosyphilis ( 160 – 162 ). CSF TPPA specificity increased from 75.6% to 93.9% with increasing CSF TPPA titers from ≥1:160 to ≥1:640, respectively, when neurosyphilis was defined as a reactive CSF-VDRL or as new vision or hearing loss ( 162 ) (Supplementary Table 5, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). On the basis of these limited data, CSF TPPA might have similar sensitivity performance to CSF FTA-ABS in studies of patients with definitive or presumptive symptomatic neurosyphilis ( 55 ). However, further studies on CSF TPPA test performance and titers are needed before this treponemal test can be recommended for off-label use in unique clinical situations to aid in the diagnosis of neurosyphilis.

CSF Antibody Tests for Ocular Syphilis and Otosyphilis

Ocular syphilis and otosyphilis diagnoses are difficult, and data are limited on CSF nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal test performance in these clinical scenarios. Existing studies are largely retrospective with small sample sizes (<50) and use of CSF VDRL testing, with low sensitivity for both ocular syphilis (<50%) and otosyphilis (<10%) when compared with clinical manifestations and serological evidence of syphilis as reference standards ( 163 – 173 ). CDC’s Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021 state that CSF analysis, including a cell count, protein determination, and CSF-VDRL, might be helpful in diagnosis of suspected ocular syphilis for patients without neurologic symptoms and no evidence of ocular infection on examination; however, it is not recommended in suspected otosyphilis among persons with isolated auditory symptoms and a normal neurologic examination ( 55 ).

No published data are available on CSF treponemal test performance in ocular syphilis, and limited studies of CSF treponemal tests in patients with otosyphilis include insufficient sample sizes and unsuitable reference standards. No CSF treponemal tests are recommended for off-label use in patients with suspected ocular syphilis or otosyphilis and no symptoms or signs suggestive of neurosyphilis.

Serologic Tests for Congenital Syphilis

Passive transfer of maternal antibody can cause positive treponemal test results in neonates and infants for >1 year ( 174 ). Performing a treponemal test (i.e., TPPA, FTA-ABS, or immunoassay) on neonatal serum is not currently recommended because interpreting these results is difficult ( 55 ). Although studies have found good correlation between IgM FTA-ABS or ELISA and clinical congenital syphilis findings or other reactive serology in neonates ( 175 , 176 ), these studies were not performed with commercially available IgM tests. No IgM test is recommended to aid in the diagnosis of congenital syphilis. Quantitative nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests (e.g., RPR or VDRL) are recommended for use in newborns born to mothers with positive syphilis serologies during pregnancy ( 55 ). Nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests should be performed on serum and not umbilical cord blood because umbilical cord blood can become contaminated with maternal blood and yield a false-positive result, and Wharton’s jelly within the umbilical cord can yield a false-negative result ( 55 ). The same nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test should be used for the infant that was used for the mother at delivery so titer levels can be compared ( 55 ).

Serologic Test Performance in Pregnant Persons

A 1995 study evaluating RPR serologic testing of 265 specimens from obstetric patients immediately after delivery demonstrated a sensitivity and specificity of 100% and 97.6%, respectively, when using clinical diagnosis and FTA-ABS, Captia Syphilis G, or both as reference standards ( 177 ). Similar to the low incidence of biologic false positives in the general population (<0.85%) ( 65 ), false positives are low among pregnant persons (0.6%); all initial reactive nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests should be reflexed to a confirmatory treponemal antibody test ( 66 ).

Treponemal test performance data during pregnancy are limited. In a single study that included 2,000 patients, manual treponemal test specificity using concordance among both tests as the reference standard (e.g., FTA-ABS or TPHA) was high for both tests (99.8% and 99.95%, respectively); however, for pregnant persons, this study did not have a control group ( 178 ). For manual treponemal immunoassays, one study of Captia EIA used TPPA as the reference standard and included 9,896 pregnant patients and 24,346 nonpregnant persons who were screened at an institution that screens high-prevalence populations, including persons living with HIV infection and men who have sex with men (MSM) ( 179 ). Discordant immunoassay results (e.g., EIA positive, RPR negative, and TPPA negative) were more common for pregnant than nonpregnant persons (71.4% versus 43.5%). This is likely related to the lower prevalence of syphilis among pregnant persons screened compared with nonpregnant persons at higher risk screened. A retrospective study of aapproximately 100,000 pregnant persons screened with an automated immunoassay found 194 women with discordant immunoassay results; 156 of these women had a reactive Liaison CIA result, nonreactive RPR, and nonreactive TPPA (isolated CIA reactive), and 38 women had a reactive Liaison CIA, nonreactive RPR, and reactive TPPA ( 180 ). Among 77 women with an isolated CIA-reactive result who were retested by their provider, 41 (53%) seroreverted to nonreactive within 12 months.

Recommendation for syphilis serologic testing in pregnant persons. Nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal tests should be interpreted in the same manner regardless of pregnancy status (Box).

Comment and evidence summary. On the basis of existing data, treponemal tests perform no differently in pregnant persons and should be interpreted in the same manner as for nonpregnant persons ( 177 , 179 , 180 ). However, because of the lower prevalence of syphilis in pregnant persons in many areas of the United States, discordant immunoassay results identified with the reverse sequence screening algorithm need to be adjudicated with a treponemal test such as the TPPA and managed according to CDC’s Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021 ( 55 ). False-positive nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests in pregnancy occur at a similar rate to the general population ( 65 , 66 ).

Serologic Test Performance in Persons Living with HIV/AIDS

Data are limited on nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test performance for persons with HIV infection as a distinct group; most studies report RPR and VDRL sensitivity in general populations that include HIV-positive persons or HIV infection in the context of neurosyphilis or syphilitic posterior uveitis. A 2007 cross-sectional study of 868 patients with genital ulcer disease indicated that RPR test sensitivity and specificity for patients with HIV infection was 81.8% and 90.6%, respectively, which was comparable to results observed for the cohort without HIV infection ( 181 ). In addition, a 2017 study found no statistically significant difference in sensitivity or specificity on the basis of HIV infection status when evaluating 571 specimens using CSF VDRL and CSF polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with clinical neurologic symptoms as reference standards ( 162 ); using laboratory and clinical diagnostic criteria, CSF-VDRL sensitivity ranged from 49% to 68% and specificity ranged from 90% to 91%. Other studies of populations with varying levels of HIV prevalence found overall sensitivities of 72.5%–85% for serum RPR, 68.8% for CSF RPR, 13.3%–62.5% for CSF VDRL, and 72.6%–91.2% for serum VDRL ( 95 , 152 , 163 , 169 , 182 ).

Although data suggest that nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test performance sensitivities do not significantly differ between persons living with and without HIV infection, studies have reported increased likelihood of BFP in HIV-positive persons. In studies with samples sizes that ranged from 789 to 300,000, serum testing by VDRL or RPR indicated that the rate of BFP results was 2.5–34.5 times higher among HIV-positive persons than HIV-negative persons ( 67 – 69 , 183 , 184 ). These studies were conducted in populations before antiretroviral therapy was widely available or in populations where viral load was not assessed. BFP rates in persons living with HIV infection who are virally suppressed have not been studied.

Treponemal test positivity generally persists after previously treated infection, unless the infection is treated before the secondary stage, as has been previously described in persons without HIV infection. Before modern antiretroviral therapy, seroreversion of either the MHA-TP or FTA-ABS test was found to vary by severity of HIV disease in two studies and was lower for asymptomatic HIV infection (five of 69 patients) than symptomatic HIV/AIDS (eight of 21 patients) in one study ( 62 ). In another study, seroreversion was identified in 14% of 29 patients with asymptomatic HIV infection and 41% of 29 patients with symptomatic HIV infection ( 72 ). However, two subsequent studies including 31 and 104 patients found no difference in seroreversion of treponemal tests by HIV status in patients previously treated for syphilis ( 113 , 185 ). In a more recent study of 294 patients with previous syphilis followed for ≥6 months after treatment and with no signs of syphilis during the follow-up interval, 87% were reactive for FTA-ABS, 92% for TPPA, and 96%–99% for one of four treponemal immunoassays ( 115 ). Treponemal immunoassays were statistically significantly more likely to remain reactive compared with FTA-ABS ( 115 ).

Recommendation for syphilis serologic testing in persons living with HIV/AIDS. Nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal tests should be interpreted in the same manner regardless of HIV status (Box).

Comment and evidence summary. On the basis of existing data, nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal tests should be interpreted the same for patients with and without HIV infection ( 95 , 115 , 152 , 162 , 181 ).

Direct Detection Tests for T. pallidum

Darkfield microscopy.

Darkfield microscopy has been the most widely used direct detection method for T. pallidum, but over time, has become less widely available in the United States as the health care delivery system has evolved ( 56 , 186 ). Darkfield microscopy is a morphology- and motility-based test that relies on examining live treponemal spirochetes and must be performed within 20 minutes of specimen collection ( 51 , 94 ). The test is useful for moist lesions of suspected anogenital primary or suspected secondary syphilis where treponemal spirochetes can be readily found (e.g., ulcerative lesions and condylomata lata). Suspected lesions of the external and internal genitalia (including the cervix) and rectum can be examined if serous fluid is collected according to established procedures for darkfield microscopy specimen collection ( 51 ). Darkfield microscopy on oral lesions is difficult to interpret because of the presence of oral commensal treponemes, which are easily confused with T. pallidum ; therefore, it is not recommended to use darkfield microscopy on oral lesions.

An optimal specimen for darkfield microscopy is serous fluid that is free of red blood cells and collected on a microscope slide by using a touch preparation or sterile bacteriological loop. The lesion should be gently cleaned and abraded with a sterile gauze pad or a swab dipped in saline. Serous fluid will appear when slight pressure is applied to the base of the ulcer. A microscope slide should be used to collect the exudate, and a coverslip should be applied in a manner that avoids trapping air bubbles. Alternatively, a sterile bacteriological loop can be used to transfer the exudate to a slide. For cervical, intravaginal, and rectal lesions, serous fluid specimens can be collected with a moist swab and transferred to a glass slide.

Darkfield microscopic capability should be maintained or established in clinics in areas with a high prevalence of syphilis; rapid onsite detection of primary syphilis results in timelier treatment that benefits both patient care and public health. A well-trained microscopist and a darkfield microscope are required onsite so the sample can be examined within 20 minutes of collection before motility is compromised. Proficiency testing of darkfield microscopy should be ongoing, and training is provided by the National Network of STD Clinical Prevention Training Centers ( https://www.nnptc.org ). The use of commensal Treponema refringens and Treponema denticola for darkfield microscopy training is not recommended because these spirochetes can easily be confused with T. pallidum ( 51 ). Proficiency with darkfield microscopy requires the ability to distinguish T. pallidum from other commensal spirochetes on the basis of motility and morphology.

The sensitivity and specificity of darkfield microscopy, defined by clinical presentation and laboratory findings (i.e., serology or PCR), ranges from 75% to 100% and 94% to 100% for primary lesions and 58% to 71% and 100% on secondary lesions, respectively ( 141 , 187 – 191 ). Because serologic tests can be negative in early infection, darkfield microscopic examination of anogenital lesions suspected of being primary syphilis can result in a definitive diagnosis ( 186 ). The variation in darkfield microscopy sensitivity for primary lesions might be related to the duration of the lesion because most studies do not assess the age of the lesion when conducting performance studies for primary syphilis. Darkfield microscopy can still be used as a POC test for definitive diagnosis in any patient with anogenital lesions suggestive of primary syphilis.

The sensitivity of serology at the secondary stage of syphilis in adults is superior to darkfield microscopy; therefore, darkfield microscopy is not routinely recommended in suspected secondary syphilis, except for condylomata lata when POC serology is not available or negative and a definitive diagnosis is warranted. If available, darkfield testing also might be useful for testing moist lesions of congenital syphilis (e.g., bullous rashes and snuffles). The sensitivity of darkfield microscopy compared with rabbit infectivity testing (previous gold standard) on amniotic fluid for congenital syphilis diagnosis varies from 42% to 86% with a specificity of 100% ( 192 , 193 ). Because data are limited, darkfield testing on amniotic fluid is generally not recommended.

Commensal treponemes found in the oral cavity might be misinterpreted as T. pallidum ( 51 ); therefore, darkfield microscopy is not recommended for oral lesions. Darkfield microscopy is not recommended for CSF, lymph node aspirate, and other body fluids because scientific evidence for use with these specimen types is lacking. A list of test performance, specimen types, storage, and transportation-related guidance for direct detection syphilis tests is provided ( Table 2 ) (Supplementary Table 6, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ).

Recommendation for the direct detection of T. pallidum by darkfield microscopy. Darkfield microscopy should be maintained if already in use or established in STD clinics where a POC test for primary or secondary syphilis diagnosis would be beneficial for timely patient treatment (Box).

Comment and evidence summary. The sensitivity of darkfield microscopy in detecting T. pallidum from primary lesions ranges from 94% to 100% and 81% to 100% from secondary lesions when compared with NAATs ( 141 , 187 – 191 ). Darkfield microscopy can be more sensitive than serologic tests at the primary stage and offers the advantage of timely detection and rapid treatment of primary syphilis ( 186 ). The procedure is classified as moderately complex by CLIA, and the settings implementing the darkfield microscopy will require CLIA certification for such a test.

Immunofluorescent Antibody Staining for T. pallidum Detection

The direct fluorescent antibody test for T. pallidum (DFA-TP) method uses fluorescence-tagged specific antibodies to visualize T. pallidum in specimens from primary and secondary syphilis lesions. This test specimen collection method is similar to darkfield microscopy, except that after being placed on the microscope slide, the specimen is fixed and sent to a laboratory for processing. Generally, the DFA-TP test is equivalent in sensitivity to darkfield microscopy ( 188 , 190 ); however, whereas darkfield test performance to assess motility might decline with time, DFA-TP might be more sensitive in older primary lesions. DFA-TP also has the advantage of not requiring motile organisms to detect T. pallidum , and the reading of the results is more objective. The main disadvantages are that results take 1–2 days because they must be processed in a laboratory, and the commercial, FDA-cleared DFA-TP test is no longer available in the United States ( 194 ). Fluorescence-tagged monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies are commercially available but are not FDA cleared. For use in diagnostics and standard clinical laboratory practice, these reagents would need to be validated for clinical diagnostic testing and routine quality control would need to be performed.

Immunohistochemistry and Silver Staining

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) and silver staining are direct detection methods that have been used to stain and examine formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue biopsies from the skin, brain, placenta, umbilical cord, or other tissues. Biopsies can help identify the cause of atypical ulcers or skin lesions or those that do not respond to initial therapy ( 55 ). Silver staining (e.g., Warthin-Starry and Steiner stains) is a morphology-based test, whereas IHC is both immunologically and morphology based.

For IHC, the peroxidase-conjugated avidin-biotin complex (ABC) technique has been the most frequently evaluated method for tissue sections. The method involves heat-induced epitope exposure and incubation with rabbit anti- T. pallidum immunoglobulin antibodies. Subsequently, biotinylated anti-rabbit immunoglobulin antibodies are added, followed by incubation with peroxidase-conjugated ABC and visualization of the stained treponemal spirochetes. The main difference between the indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) method and IHC ABC is that the secondary antibody is labeled with a fluorescent dye in IIF.

Compared with a clinical or serological diagnosis of secondary syphilis, the IHC ABC method demonstrated 100% specificity across four studies, with sensitivity ranging from 64% to 94% ( 187 , 191 , 195 , 196 ). In one of these studies, the sensitivity of IHC ABC was compared with IIF on 37 tissue samples; the sensitivity was 95% and 89%, respectively ( 191 ).

The sensitivity of silver staining of FFPE skin biopsies reported in four studies ranged from 0% to 41% compared with darkfield microscopy, clinical diagnosis and stage of syphilis, and serology ( 195 – 198 ). Although specificity was not addressed in these studies, others reported challenges with interpreting stained sections because background staining of artifacts and reticulum fibers in skin tissue made it difficult to visualize treponemal spirochetes ( 196 , 199 ). Another study evaluated silver staining and an IIF assay on FFPE tissue sections from 17 cases of fetal death attributable to congenital syphilis and found the test sensitivities were 41% (seven of 17) and 88% (15 of 17), respectively ( 200 ). Because of both low sensitivity and challenges with distinguishing spirochetes, use of silver staining for direct detection of T. pallidum is no longer recommended for any type of FFPE tissue specimens ( 195 ).

IHC ABC should be used for evaluating atypical lesions and tissue biopsies for suspected syphilis (primary, secondary, congenital, and gummatous) when the diagnosis remains uncertain. Polyclonal antibodies used with IHC ABC might cross-react with intestinal or other spirochetes (e.g., Borrelia burgdorferi ) ( 196 , 201 ). Further studies comparing the test performance of IIF with IHC ABC are needed.

For congenital syphilis testing, placenta and umbilical cord samples should be tested with the IHC ABC technique or IIF but not with silver stain. Placenta tissue samples should be taken at the periphery and close to where the cord is attached. A cord sample approximately 3–4 cm long should be obtained from a section distal to the placenta soon after delivery; the tissue should not be cleaned with antimicrobial-containing solution before sample collection ( 201 ). Tissue samples should be fixed in 10% buffered formalin at room temperature immediately upon collection and sent to a pathology laboratory for paraffin embedding and sectioning.

Recommendation for direct detection of T. pallidum by immunohistochemistry and silver staining. IHC is preferred over silver staining for FFPE tissue sections regardless of anatomic site (Box).

Comment and evidence summary. The sensitivity of IHC ranged from 64% to 94% ( 187 , 191 , 195 , 196 ), whereas silver stain had a sensitivity of 0%–41% ( 195 – 198 ). Two studies reported difficulties in visualizing treponemal spirochetes because of background artifacts in silver-stained sections ( 196 , 199 ).

Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests

Although NAATs hold great promise for syphilis diagnosis, especially for primary syphilis, no FDA-cleared NAATs are available for syphilis. Most laboratory-developed NAATs are based on the tp47 ( tp074 ) or polA ( tp0105 ) genes with varying sensitivities depending on the stage of syphilis and specimen type ( 193 , 197 , 202 – 204 ). A highly sensitive reverse transcriptase PCR test that targets a region of the 16S rRNA gene has also been described ( 205 ) and used on CSF in research studies ( 206 – 208 ). In addition, a real-time, transcription-mediated assay for research use only that targets the 23S rRNA gene (Hologic TMA) has been used to evaluate the presence of T. pallidum in rectal and pharyngeal specimens ( 108 ). Certain laboratories have CLIA-validated PCR tests for T. pallidum that can be used to test specimens from genital lesions and CSF. A digital droplet PCR test was recently used to evaluate the presence of T. pallidum in saliva ( 209 ).

The sensitivity of tp47 and polA targets varies across studies, from 72% to 95% on lesion exudate of primary syphilis and from 20% to 86% on secondary lesion swabs depending on lesion type sampled (skin rash versus condylomata lata). These studies are limited by limited sample sizes and different reference standards that include some combination of the following: syphilis clinical diagnosis, serologic findings, or darkfield microscopy results ( 109 , 110 , 189 , 203 , 204 , 210 , 211 ). If both a darkfield microscopy and a NAAT are performed on the same lesion, the specimen for darkfield microscopy should be collected first. A summary of specimen type and collection, transport, and storage requirements for NAAT specimens drawn from references is presented (Table 2).

A NAAT that targets the polA gene had a sensitivity of 84% when tested from maculopapular lesions that were scraped from patients with secondary syphilis using the noncutting edge of a sterilized blade ( 112 ). The previously described low sensitivity of NAATs in detecting T. pallidum from maculopapular lesions might have been attributable to inadequate sampling; however, more studies using this scraping technique for direct detection of T. pallidum in skin lesions are required to better estimate NAAT performance. Sensitivities of NAATs on secondary syphilis lesion biopsies vary from 26% to 75%. These studies are limited by different sample collection methods and reference standards, including a combination of clinical, IHC, or serologic findings ( 187 , 195 , 197 , 198 ); the highest sensitivity was reported using unfixed tissue frozen immediately after collection.

Among 24 MSM, the Hologic TMA demonstrated a sensitivity for rectal and pharyngeal swabs of 41.6% and 29.5% compared with a NAAT targeting tp47 that was 37.5% and 12.5% sensitive for rectal and pharyngeal swabs, respectively ( 108 ). Although target sequences for T. pallidum NAATs are specific to the organism ( 41 ) and minimal cross-reactivity with commensal Treponema spp. suggests they can be used on oral lesions, more research on target specificity is required to be conclusive. In addition, the tp47 and polA NAATs detect all three pathogenic T. pallidum subsp. ( T. pallidum, T. pertenue, and T. endemicum ). A NAAT that distinguishes among these three subspecies has been described but has not been validated with syphilis specimens ( 212 ).

NAAT sensitivity using whole blood or its components (serum and plasma) or CSF from adults varies considerably and is limited by small sample sizes; additional studies are needed before these sample types can be considered for clinical testing ( 110 , 189 , 210 ). Compared with RIT, sensitivity of NAATs looks promising for amniotic fluid (75% versus 100%), neonatal CSF (60% versus 75%), and neonatal whole blood or serum (67% versus 94%) in congenital syphilis ( 192 , 193 , 213 – 215 ). CDC’s Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021 suggest that examination of the placenta, umbilical cord, suspicious lesions, nasal discharge, or other body fluids with a CLIA-validated NAAT could be considered in aiding the diagnosis of congenital syphilis ( 55 ).

NAATs amplifying the tp47 gene are highly specific (98%–100%) and have been performed on different specimen types, including lesion exudates of primary and secondary syphilis; lesion biopsies of secondary syphilis; CSF from neurosyphilis cases; and whole blood, serum, and plasma from primary, secondary, and latent syphilis cases. Assays targeting the polA gene demonstrate similar specificity (98%–100%) and have been performed on lesion exudates of primary and secondary syphilis as well as CSF from neurosyphilis cases ( 109 , 110 , 189 , 203 , 204 , 210 , 211 ). NAATs with an open platform, regardless of target, are more susceptible than other direct detection tests to false-positive results caused by sample contamination if strict, clean quality control procedures are not used.

On the basis of limited data, laboratory-developed NAATs can be used for primary or possible secondary syphilis lesions (e.g., moist lesions including oral lesions [mucous patches]) in seronegative patients provided that laboratories establish performance specifications to satisfy CMS regulations for CLIA compliance ( 109 , 110 , 189 , 204 , 210 , 211 ). NAATs might offer more timely diagnosis of primary syphilis compared with serologic testing but have limited additional benefit over serology for secondary syphilis. NAATs can be considered as an adjunct test in amniotic fluid, neonatal CSF, or neonatal blood in cases of suspected congenital infection ( 55 , 192 , 193 , 213 – 215 ). Although positive NAAT results are helpful in establishing a diagnosis, a negative result in any of these specimens does not rule out infection because of limited sensitivity. NAATs are not recommended for whole blood or blood fractions because of low sensitivity, and data are insufficient to recommend CSF NAAT testing in adults with symptoms suggestive of neurosyphilis ( 110 , 189 , 210 ). Data are insufficient to recommend their use on ocular fluid or tissue from gummas or other tertiary syphilis lesions.

Point-of-Care Serologic Testing

Because the syphilis algorithm might require confirmatory or other reflex testing, laboratory-based serologic testing for syphilis might take 3–5 days and might require patients to return to the clinic for follow-up or treatment. An accurate POC serologic antibody test for syphilis can shorten the time to treatment because the infection could be identified at the time of the visit or encounter. Studies evaluating the performance of POC syphilis serologic tests include traditional or reverse algorithms that use nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal laboratory-based serologic tests as reference standards (Supplementary Table 7, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). Multiple POC syphilis serologic tests or dual POC serologic tests are available and used internationally for HIV and syphilis ( https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240077126 ); however, only the Syphilis Health Check (Diagnostics Direct) and Dual Path Platform (DPP) HIV-Syphilis Assay (Chembio Diagnostics) are FDA cleared and CLIA waived for the detection of T. pallidum antibodies. Physician office laboratories and public health field-based screening programs that offer CLIA-waived tests are required to have and maintain a CLIA certificate of waiver that requires these tests to be quality assured and operated by trained personnel according to manufacturer instructions ( https://www.cdc.gov/labquality/waived-tests.html ).

Syphilis Health Check

In two prospective studies with 202 and 562 participants, the sensitivity and specificity of the Syphilis Health Check ranged from 50.0% to 71.4% and from 91.5% to 95.9%, respectively, when compared with the Trep-Sure EIA as the reference standard ( 216 , 217 ) (Supplementary Table 7, https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/138288 ). When compared with a reference standard of RPR and TPPA in two other studies with 965 and 690 participants conducted in an outreach setting and emergency departments, the Syphilis Health Check had a sensitivity of 76.9% and 90.0% and a specificity of 98.5% and 99.0% ( 218 , 219 ). In the study with 965 participants, the sensitivity of the Syphilis Health Check was 50.0% and specificity was 99.4% compared with TPPA alone ( 219 ). The goal of POC testing is to reach populations who might not seek care and might be more likely to have infections that otherwise go undetected and untreated. The results of the two latter studies suggest that the Syphilis Health Check test might be successful in reaching these populations. A 2018 CDC retrospective study used 1,406 archived sera from U.S. commercial and public health laboratories to evaluate the performance of Syphilis Health Check against treponemal tests only (TPPA, EIA, and CIA) and both treponemal and nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) (RPR) tests in a laboratory setting ( 220 ). The overall analysis indicated that the sensitivity and specificity of the Syphilis Health Check were 88.7% and 93.1%, respectively, when compared with treponemal tests alone; comparison with both treponemal and nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests demonstrated 95.7% sensitivity and 93.2% specificity. The study demonstrated that the performance of Syphilis Health Check might be comparable to the current treponemal antibody tests used in clinical settings but did not provide performance data on the populations who might have inconsistent health care seeking. In addition, syphilis history and treatment status data were not available for the patients in this retrospective study.

DPP HIV-Syphilis Assay

In two studies with 150 and 450 participants that used the FDA-cleared version of the DPP HIV-Syphilis Assay with the DPP Micro Reader, sensitivity and specificity of the DPP HIV-Syphilis Assay for syphilis were 95.3% and 100% and 98.7% and 100%, respectively, when compared with TPPA ( 221 , 222 ). Although accurate, low-cost rapid tests have the potential to expand testing to populations who otherwise would not be tested in a timely manner, data are insufficient to recommend when and where to use these tests. Further data on the costs and predictive value of POC serologic tests are needed to assess the implementation of tests in settings that serve populations without regular medical care and those with and without a history of treated syphilis. Costs of testing and timely treatment of persons with untreated syphilis in established syphilis screening programs need to be compared with the costs of reaching, testing, and treating populations in outreach settings, emergency departments, or delivery rooms.

Syphilis Laboratory Test Reporting

Reporting to public health departments.

Syphilis has important public health implications, and cases are required to be reported to state or local health departments by the health care provider, laboratory, or both, depending on the state public health reporting statutes. Because clinical information might be unavailable to the laboratory, all positive syphilis direct detection tests, along with specimen site and positive syphilis serologic tests, should be reported to state and local health departments. State laws detail which syphilis test results to report and time frames for reporting laboratory results.

Both probable and confirmed cases of syphilis should be reported by health care providers to the local or state health department. Clinical criteria used to stage patients with syphilis might differ from public health surveillance case definitions. Current case definitions are available at https://ndc.services.cdc.gov/case-definitions/syphilis-2018 . For surveillance purposes, probable cases are defined as the patient having signs or symptoms consistent with the stage of syphilis and having supportive laboratory test results (e.g., serology) that detect an immune response to the pathogen ( 223 ). A confirmed case is similar except that the presence of the organism is verified by a direct detection method specific for T. pallidum .

Reporting to Health Care Providers

When reporting results to health care providers, laboratories should list all tests used, report each result with an interpretation, and document the syphilis algorithm applied to render the interpretation, when appropriate ( 224 ). Any changes in the test algorithm should be communicated to the submitter and include information about differences in interpretation depending on the test algorithm. Preliminary results released to the submitter should list tests that are pending. All the tests and results should be listed in the final report, even if one or more tests (e.g., the nontreponemal [lipoidal antigen] tests or TPPA) were sent to an outside laboratory.

Serology and CSF Antibody Tests

Serologic antibody tests for syphilis have been the mainstay for syphilis testing in the United States for decades. However, additional research in multiple areas would enhance the utility of current serologic tests.

Studies of test performance are needed to estimate the sensitivity of nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests for primary syphilis against a reference standard of darkfield microscopy or well-characterized NAATs on anogenital lesions. Additional data are needed on serologic test performance in cases of latent syphilis (stratified by duration of infection: early latent, late latent, and latent of unknown duration), late-stage syphilis, symptomatic neurosyphilis, ocular syphilis, and otic syphilis. To conduct these studies, specimen banks of sera that are well characterized by syphilis stage are essential.

Test performance studies of DBS testing compared with laboratory-based treponemal tests would allow assessment of its potential as a diagnostic tool. In addition, establishing cutoff values for signal strength of immunoassays that are likely to be confirmed as true positives for syphilis should be a priority. More studies are needed to determine whether such information would aid in clinical decision-making. Continued research on the performance of the two different serologic testing algorithms in populations with low, medium, and high prevalence of syphilis and the development of a cost-benefit analysis tool would aid in laboratory decision-making when selecting the best approach for their setting. Finally, evaluation of the CSF TPPA in studies with larger sample sizes and in populations with and without syphilis is needed to better assess specificity of the assay. To better determine the test performance characteristics of the CSF antibody tests, head-to-head studies of CSF nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal antibody tests would be conducted with larger samples, using comparable, high-quality, agreed-upon reference standards, and in more populations with well-characterized symptom status.

Direct Detection Tests

Direct detection of T. pallidum has been based on microscopy but is being modernized with molecular methods for detection. No FDA-cleared molecular tests are marketed in the United States, although certain laboratories offer such testing using in-house laboratory-developed and validated tests. Molecular tests that are FDA cleared for T. pallidum would facilitate their uptake in laboratories. However, additional research is needed in determining optimal specimen types, including genital and extragenital specimens stratified by stage of syphilis, specimen transport and storage, and specimen adequacy; identifying molecular markers that could be used to monitor for the emergence of antimicrobial resistance and strain typing to better aid epidemiological investigations; evaluating the sensitivity of NAATs on whole blood or its components (serum and plasma); and assessing the cross-reactivity of NAATs with commensal Treponema spp.

Despite years of study internationally, nonlaboratory-based POC tests for syphilis are in their infancy in the United States, with only two FDA-cleared and CLIA-waived tests. Additional POC tests and data are needed to increase understanding of their performance in clinical and outreach settings. Additional areas needed for research include well-designed prospective studies on POC test performance in the context of screening algorithms, special patient populations, linkage to treatment and care, and cost-benefits so that recommendations can be made regarding performance and use in the United States. Also needed are studies comparing POC tests with FDA-cleared laboratory-based treponemal serologic tests, followed by programmatic recommendations for implementation to guide their appropriate use in syphilis testing algorithms.

Corresponding author: John R. Papp, Division of STD Prevention, National Center for HIV, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, CDC. Telephone: 404-423-2246; Email: [email protected]

1 Division of STD Prevention, National Center for HIV, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; 2 University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California; 3 The Task Force for Global Health, Decatur, Georgia

Conflicts of Interest

All authors have completed and submitted the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors form for disclosure of potential conflicts of interest. No conflicts of interest were disclosed.

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FIGURE 1 . Serologic response to infection with Treponema pallidum , the causative agent of syphilis

Source: Adapted from Peeling RW, Mabey D, Kamb ML, Chen X-S, Radolf JD, Benzaken AS. Syphilis. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2017;3:17073. Used with permission.

BOX. CDC laboratory recommendations for syphilis testing, United States, 2024

  • Recommendation for endpoint titers. Endpoint titers (the highest dilution yielding a reactive result) should be determined and clearly reported when testing serum with nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) assays that detect antibodies to lipoidal antigens (i.e., rapid plasma reagin and Venereal Disease Research Laboratory). Reports should not contain mathematical symbols such as > or < signs.
  • Recommendation for syphilis serologic testing algorithm. Serologic tests that measure antibodies to both nontreponemal (lipoidal) and treponemal antigens related to syphilitic infections should be used in combination, when the primary test is reactive, to aid in the diagnosis of syphilis. Sole reliance on one reactive serologic test result can misclassify a patient’s syphilis status. Both the traditional syphilis screening algorithm (initial screening with nontreponemal [lipoidal antigen] assays) and the reverse syphilis screening algorithm (initial screening with treponemal immunoassays) are acceptable. The preferred algorithm should be based on laboratory resources, including staff, space and costs, test volume, and patient populations served.
  • Recommendation for serologic syphilis testing. Nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) tests (e.g., rapid plasma reagin or Venereal Disease Research Laboratory) are not interchangeable when used to determine antibody titers; testing on follow-up samples must be performed with the same type of test. The Treponema pallidum particle agglutination test is the preferred manual treponemal test.
  • Recommendation for syphilis serologic testing in pregnant persons. Nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal tests should be interpreted in the same manner regardless of pregnancy status.
  • Recommendation for syphilis serologic testing in persons living with HIV/AIDS. Nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) and treponemal tests should be interpreted in the same manner regardless of HIV status.
  • Recommendation for the direct detection of Treponema pallidum by darkfield microscopy. Darkfield microscopy should be maintained if already in use or established in sexually transmitted diseases clinics where a point-of-care test for primary or secondary syphilis diagnosis would be beneficial for timely patient treatment.
  • Recommendation for direct detection of Treponema pallidum by immunohistochemistry and silver staining. Immunohistochemistry is preferred over silver staining for formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue sections regardless of anatomic site.

FIGURE 2 . Effect of antibody and antigen concentration on agglutination

Figure 3 . algorithms that can be applied to screening for syphilis with serologic tests — cdc laboratory recommendations for syphilis testing in the united states, 2024.

Abbreviations: CIA = chemiluminescence immunoassay; EIA = enzyme immunoassay; RPR = rapid plasma regain; TPPA = Treponoma pallidum particle agglutination; VDRL = Venereal Disease Research Laboratory.

* False positives are defined as being a reactive serum specimen during the initial treponemal serologic test that is nonreactive when reflex tested by a nontreponemal (lipoidal antigen) test and a second treponemal test.

Suggested citation for this article: Papp JR, Park IU, Fakile Y, Pereira L, Pillay A, Bolan GA. CDC Laboratory Recommendations for Syphilis Testing, United States, 2024. MMWR Recomm Rep 2024;73(No. RR-1):1–32. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr7301a1 .

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Our next-generation model: Gemini 1.5

Feb 15, 2024

The model delivers dramatically enhanced performance, with a breakthrough in long-context understanding across modalities.

SundarPichai_2x.jpg

A note from Google and Alphabet CEO Sundar Pichai:

Last week, we rolled out our most capable model, Gemini 1.0 Ultra, and took a significant step forward in making Google products more helpful, starting with Gemini Advanced . Today, developers and Cloud customers can begin building with 1.0 Ultra too — with our Gemini API in AI Studio and in Vertex AI .

Our teams continue pushing the frontiers of our latest models with safety at the core. They are making rapid progress. In fact, we’re ready to introduce the next generation: Gemini 1.5. It shows dramatic improvements across a number of dimensions and 1.5 Pro achieves comparable quality to 1.0 Ultra, while using less compute.

This new generation also delivers a breakthrough in long-context understanding. We’ve been able to significantly increase the amount of information our models can process — running up to 1 million tokens consistently, achieving the longest context window of any large-scale foundation model yet.

Longer context windows show us the promise of what is possible. They will enable entirely new capabilities and help developers build much more useful models and applications. We’re excited to offer a limited preview of this experimental feature to developers and enterprise customers. Demis shares more on capabilities, safety and availability below.

Introducing Gemini 1.5

By Demis Hassabis, CEO of Google DeepMind, on behalf of the Gemini team

This is an exciting time for AI. New advances in the field have the potential to make AI more helpful for billions of people over the coming years. Since introducing Gemini 1.0 , we’ve been testing, refining and enhancing its capabilities.

Today, we’re announcing our next-generation model: Gemini 1.5.

Gemini 1.5 delivers dramatically enhanced performance. It represents a step change in our approach, building upon research and engineering innovations across nearly every part of our foundation model development and infrastructure. This includes making Gemini 1.5 more efficient to train and serve, with a new Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture.

The first Gemini 1.5 model we’re releasing for early testing is Gemini 1.5 Pro. It’s a mid-size multimodal model, optimized for scaling across a wide-range of tasks, and performs at a similar level to 1.0 Ultra , our largest model to date. It also introduces a breakthrough experimental feature in long-context understanding.

Gemini 1.5 Pro comes with a standard 128,000 token context window. But starting today, a limited group of developers and enterprise customers can try it with a context window of up to 1 million tokens via AI Studio and Vertex AI in private preview.

As we roll out the full 1 million token context window, we’re actively working on optimizations to improve latency, reduce computational requirements and enhance the user experience. We’re excited for people to try this breakthrough capability, and we share more details on future availability below.

These continued advances in our next-generation models will open up new possibilities for people, developers and enterprises to create, discover and build using AI.

Context lengths of leading foundation models

Highly efficient architecture

Gemini 1.5 is built upon our leading research on Transformer and MoE architecture. While a traditional Transformer functions as one large neural network, MoE models are divided into smaller "expert” neural networks.

Depending on the type of input given, MoE models learn to selectively activate only the most relevant expert pathways in its neural network. This specialization massively enhances the model’s efficiency. Google has been an early adopter and pioneer of the MoE technique for deep learning through research such as Sparsely-Gated MoE , GShard-Transformer , Switch-Transformer, M4 and more.

Our latest innovations in model architecture allow Gemini 1.5 to learn complex tasks more quickly and maintain quality, while being more efficient to train and serve. These efficiencies are helping our teams iterate, train and deliver more advanced versions of Gemini faster than ever before, and we’re working on further optimizations.

Greater context, more helpful capabilities

An AI model’s “context window” is made up of tokens, which are the building blocks used for processing information. Tokens can be entire parts or subsections of words, images, videos, audio or code. The bigger a model’s context window, the more information it can take in and process in a given prompt — making its output more consistent, relevant and useful.

Through a series of machine learning innovations, we’ve increased 1.5 Pro’s context window capacity far beyond the original 32,000 tokens for Gemini 1.0. We can now run up to 1 million tokens in production.

This means 1.5 Pro can process vast amounts of information in one go — including 1 hour of video, 11 hours of audio, codebases with over 30,000 lines of code or over 700,000 words. In our research, we’ve also successfully tested up to 10 million tokens.

Complex reasoning about vast amounts of information

1.5 Pro can seamlessly analyze, classify and summarize large amounts of content within a given prompt. For example, when given the 402-page transcripts from Apollo 11’s mission to the moon, it can reason about conversations, events and details found across the document.

Reasoning across a 402-page transcript: Gemini 1.5 Pro Demo

Gemini 1.5 Pro can understand, reason about and identify curious details in the 402-page transcripts from Apollo 11’s mission to the moon.

Better understanding and reasoning across modalities

1.5 Pro can perform highly-sophisticated understanding and reasoning tasks for different modalities, including video. For instance, when given a 44-minute silent Buster Keaton movie , the model can accurately analyze various plot points and events, and even reason about small details in the movie that could easily be missed.

Multimodal prompting with a 44-minute movie: Gemini 1.5 Pro Demo

Gemini 1.5 Pro can identify a scene in a 44-minute silent Buster Keaton movie when given a simple line drawing as reference material for a real-life object.

Relevant problem-solving with longer blocks of code

1.5 Pro can perform more relevant problem-solving tasks across longer blocks of code. When given a prompt with more than 100,000 lines of code, it can better reason across examples, suggest helpful modifications and give explanations about how different parts of the code works.

Problem solving across 100,633 lines of code | Gemini 1.5 Pro Demo

Gemini 1.5 Pro can reason across 100,000 lines of code giving helpful solutions, modifications and explanations.

Enhanced performance

When tested on a comprehensive panel of text, code, image, audio and video evaluations, 1.5 Pro outperforms 1.0 Pro on 87% of the benchmarks used for developing our large language models (LLMs). And when compared to 1.0 Ultra on the same benchmarks, it performs at a broadly similar level.

Gemini 1.5 Pro maintains high levels of performance even as its context window increases. In the Needle In A Haystack (NIAH) evaluation, where a small piece of text containing a particular fact or statement is purposely placed within a long block of text, 1.5 Pro found the embedded text 99% of the time, in blocks of data as long as 1 million tokens.

Gemini 1.5 Pro also shows impressive “in-context learning” skills, meaning that it can learn a new skill from information given in a long prompt, without needing additional fine-tuning. We tested this skill on the Machine Translation from One Book (MTOB) benchmark, which shows how well the model learns from information it’s never seen before. When given a grammar manual for Kalamang , a language with fewer than 200 speakers worldwide, the model learns to translate English to Kalamang at a similar level to a person learning from the same content.

As 1.5 Pro’s long context window is the first of its kind among large-scale models, we’re continuously developing new evaluations and benchmarks for testing its novel capabilities.

For more details, see our Gemini 1.5 Pro technical report .

Extensive ethics and safety testing

In line with our AI Principles and robust safety policies, we’re ensuring our models undergo extensive ethics and safety tests. We then integrate these research learnings into our governance processes and model development and evaluations to continuously improve our AI systems.

Since introducing 1.0 Ultra in December, our teams have continued refining the model, making it safer for a wider release. We’ve also conducted novel research on safety risks and developed red-teaming techniques to test for a range of potential harms.

In advance of releasing 1.5 Pro, we've taken the same approach to responsible deployment as we did for our Gemini 1.0 models, conducting extensive evaluations across areas including content safety and representational harms, and will continue to expand this testing. Beyond this, we’re developing further tests that account for the novel long-context capabilities of 1.5 Pro.

Build and experiment with Gemini models

We’re committed to bringing each new generation of Gemini models to billions of people, developers and enterprises around the world responsibly.

Starting today, we’re offering a limited preview of 1.5 Pro to developers and enterprise customers via AI Studio and Vertex AI . Read more about this on our Google for Developers blog and Google Cloud blog .

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  • Growth and Jobs at Davos 2024: What to know
  • How using genAI to fuse creativity and technology could reshape the way we work

1. Generative AI boosts productivity, unevenly

In 2024, most chief economists surveyed by the Forum believe generative AI will increase productivity and innovation in high-income countries. But for low-income countries, just over a third think this will be the case.

Productivity boosts are expected in knowledge-heavy industries, including IT and digital communications, financial and professional services, medical and healthcare services, retail, manufacturing, engineering and construction, energy and logistics.

These potential benefits are in "sharp contrast with concerns about the risks of automation, job displacement and degradation", says the report.

Almost three-quarters (73%) of chief economists surveyed "do not foresee a net positive impact on employment in low-income economies".

research report meaning

2. Digital jobs keep growing

By 2030, the number of global digital jobs is expected to rise to around 92 million. These are generally higher-paid roles, according to the Forum's white paper, The Rise of Digital Jobs .

Digital jobs could help to balance skill shortages in higher-income countries, while boosting opportunities for younger workers in lower-income countries: "If managed well, global digital jobs present an opportunity to utilize talent around the world, widening the talent pool available to employers and providing economic growth pathways to countries across the income spectrum."

3. Unemployment levels could rise

The labour market showed resilience in 2023, with employment remaining high, said Gilbert Fossoun Houngbo, Director-General of the International Labour Organization (ILO), in the Davos session ' What to Expect From Labour Markets '.

But he said ILO projections in early January suggested the global unemployment rate could rise from 5.1% to 5.2% in 2024, with an extra two million workers expected to be looking for jobs.

In the US, the jobs market remained stronger than expected for the first month of the year, with more than 350,000 new jobs added. The unemployment rate for January was 3.7%, close to a 50-year low, according to The Guardian .

Houngbo said ILO data shows inequalities persist between low- and high-income countries, while young people are 3.5 times more at risk of being unemployed than the rest of the adult population and "many workers are struggling to pay bills, which is very worrisome".

The impact of AI on jobs was not going to be "an employment apocalypse", but that reskilling, upskilling and lifelong learning would be key to managing the transition to augmentation, he stressed.

4. More pop-up offices

LinkedIn has seen a drop in the number of fully remote job postings, from a peak of 20% in April 2022, to just 8% in December 2023, said co-founder Allen Blue, speaking in a Davos session ' The Role of the Office is Still TBC ' .

But employee interest in taking remote or hybrid jobs remains high, at around 46% of applications.

"The office is going to be in competition with working from home ... that’s a good thing for the office," he said, as management would need to innovate and create a workplace environment that "emphasizes dynamic human interaction".

Young people taking their first job want human connection, so they're more interested in hybrid than remote roles.

Martin Kocher, Austria's Federal Minister of Labour and Economy, said that some Austrian villages are actually paying for pop-up community office spaces, because people don’t want to work from home, and they can make use of other amenities close by.

He predicted the development of more pop-up office spaces away from company headquarters.

Have you read?

  • Davos 2024: 6 innovative ideas on reskilling, upskilling and building a future-ready workforce
  • From hierarchy to partnership: rethinking the employee/employer relationship in 2024

5. Skills will become even more important

With 23% of jobs expected to change in the next five years, according to the Future of Jobs Report, millions of people will need to move between declining and growing jobs.

Coursera CEO, Jeff Maggioncalda and Denis Machuel, CEO of Adecco Group AG, joined the Davos session ' The Race to Reskill ' to discuss the transferability of skills, and the potential of AI to help with personalized learning and productivity, which also levels the playing field for job opportunities globally.

But the key is in learning how to use AI and digital technologies, as Code.org Founder and CEO, Hadi Partovi, pointed out in the session ' Education Meets AI '.

When people think about job losses due to AI, he said, the risk isn't people losing their jobs to AI: "It's losing their job to somebody else who knows how to use AI. That is going to be a much greater displacement.

"It's not that the worker gets replaced by just a robot or a machine in most cases, especially for desk jobs, it's that some better or more educated worker can do that job because they can be twice as productive or three times as productive.

“The imperative is to teach how AI tools work to every citizen, and especially to our young people."

6. More women enter the workforce

In 2020, the World Bank found that potential gains from closing economic gender gaps could unlock a “gender dividend” of $172 trillion for the global economy.

But the Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2023 found that the Economic Participation and Opportunity gap has only closed by just over 60%.

Several sessions at Davos looked at how inclusion could benefit the economy , particularly by helping mothers return to the workforce, which could close skills gaps.

“There are 606 million women of working age in the world who are not working because of their unpaid care responsibilities, compared to 40 million men," Reshma Saujani, Founder and CEO of Moms First, explained in a session on the ‘ Workforce Behind the Workforce ’.

“At Moms First, we're working with over 130 companies in every sector, who are saying, ‘I don't have enough workers’. We are working with them to redesign their childcare packages and increase their subsidies.

“Childcare pays for itself. When you offer childcare to employees, you get higher worker productivity and lower rates of attrition, and greater rates of retention. We have to look at care as an economic issue that world leaders must actually do something about.”

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  • Knowledge Base

Methodology

  • What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

Published on June 7, 2021 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023 by Pritha Bhandari.

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

  • Your overall research objectives and approach
  • Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary research
  • Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
  • Your data collection methods
  • The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
  • Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research design.

  • Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

  • How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
  • Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
  • Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
  • Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

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Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.

  • Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships
  • Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

  • Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study , your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question .

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews .

Observation methods

Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

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research report meaning

As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity.

Operationalization

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method , you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

  • How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
  • What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
  • How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method , it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method , how will you avoid research bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high replicability ).

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarize your sample data in terms of:

  • The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
  • The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
  • The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

  • Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
  • Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

  • Simple random sampling
  • Stratified sampling
  • Cluster sampling
  • Likert scales
  • Reproducibility

 Statistics

  • Null hypothesis
  • Statistical power
  • Probability distribution
  • Effect size
  • Poisson distribution

Research bias

  • Optimism bias
  • Cognitive bias
  • Implicit bias
  • Hawthorne effect
  • Anchoring bias
  • Explicit bias

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories:

  • Correlational and descriptive designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables.
  • Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used to test causal relationships .

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

  • Your research questions and/or hypotheses
  • Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
  • The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
  • Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
  • Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
  • Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

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OpenAI teases an amazing new generative video model called Sora

The firm is sharing Sora with a small group of safety testers but the rest of us will have to wait to learn more.

  • Will Douglas Heaven archive page

OpenAI has built a striking new generative video model called Sora that can take a short text description and turn it into a detailed, high-definition film clip up to a minute long.

Based on four sample videos that OpenAI shared with MIT Technology Review ahead of today’s announcement, the San Francisco–based firm has pushed the envelope of what’s possible with text-to-video generation (a hot new research direction that we flagged as a trend to watch in 2024 ).

“We think building models that can understand video, and understand all these very complex interactions of our world, is an important step for all future AI systems,” says Tim Brooks, a scientist at OpenAI.

But there’s a disclaimer. OpenAI gave us a preview of Sora (which means sky in Japanese) under conditions of strict secrecy. In an unusual move, the firm would only share information about Sora if we agreed to wait until after news of the model was made public to seek the opinions of outside experts. [Editor’s note: We’ve updated this story with outside comment below.] OpenAI has not yet released a technical report or demonstrated the model actually working. And it says it won’t be releasing Sora anytime soon. [ Update: OpenAI has now shared more technical details on its website.]

The first generative models that could produce video from snippets of text appeared in late 2022. But early examples from Meta , Google, and a startup called Runway were glitchy and grainy. Since then, the tech has been getting better fast. Runway’s gen-2 model, released last year, can produce short clips that come close to matching big-studio animation in their quality. But most of these examples are still only a few seconds long.  

The sample videos from OpenAI’s Sora are high-definition and full of detail. OpenAI also says it can generate videos up to a minute long. One video of a Tokyo street scene shows that Sora has learned how objects fit together in 3D: the camera swoops into the scene to follow a couple as they walk past a row of shops.

OpenAI also claims that Sora handles occlusion well. One problem with existing models is that they can fail to keep track of objects when they drop out of view. For example, if a truck passes in front of a street sign, the sign might not reappear afterward.  

In a video of a papercraft underwater scene, Sora has added what look like cuts between different pieces of footage, and the model has maintained a consistent style between them.

It’s not perfect. In the Tokyo video, cars to the left look smaller than the people walking beside them. They also pop in and out between the tree branches. “There’s definitely some work to be done in terms of long-term coherence,” says Brooks. “For example, if someone goes out of view for a long time, they won’t come back. The model kind of forgets that they were supposed to be there.”

Impressive as they are, the sample videos shown here were no doubt cherry-picked to show Sora at its best. Without more information, it is hard to know how representative they are of the model’s typical output.   

It may be some time before we find out. OpenAI’s announcement of Sora today is a tech tease, and the company says it has no current plans to release it to the public. Instead, OpenAI will today begin sharing the model with third-party safety testers for the first time.

In particular, the firm is worried about the potential misuses of fake but photorealistic video . “We’re being careful about deployment here and making sure we have all our bases covered before we put this in the hands of the general public,” says Aditya Ramesh, a scientist at OpenAI, who created the firm’s text-to-image model DALL-E .

But OpenAI is eyeing a product launch sometime in the future. As well as safety testers, the company is also sharing the model with a select group of video makers and artists to get feedback on how to make Sora as useful as possible to creative professionals. “The other goal is to show everyone what is on the horizon, to give a preview of what these models will be capable of,” says Ramesh.

To build Sora, the team adapted the tech behind DALL-E 3, the latest version of OpenAI’s flagship text-to-image model. Like most text-to-image models, DALL-E 3 uses what’s known as a diffusion model. These are trained to turn a fuzz of random pixels into a picture.

Sora takes this approach and applies it to videos rather than still images. But the researchers also added another technique to the mix. Unlike DALL-E or most other generative video models, Sora combines its diffusion model with a type of neural network called a transformer.

Transformers are great at processing long sequences of data, like words. That has made them the special sauce inside large language models like OpenAI’s GPT-4 and Google DeepMind’s Gemini . But videos are not made of words. Instead, the researchers had to find a way to cut videos into chunks that could be treated as if they were. The approach they came up with was to dice videos up across both space and time. “It’s like if you were to have a stack of all the video frames and you cut little cubes from it,” says Brooks.

The transformer inside Sora can then process these chunks of video data in much the same way that the transformer inside a large language model processes words in a block of text. The researchers say that this let them train Sora on many more types of video than other text-to-video models, varied in terms of resolution, duration, aspect ratio, and orientation. “It really helps the model,” says Brooks. “That is something that we’re not aware of any existing work on.”

“From a technical perspective it seems like a very significant leap forward,” says Sam Gregory, executive director at Witness, a human rights organization that specializes in the use and misuse of video technology. “But there are two sides to the coin,” he says. “The expressive capabilities offer the potential for many more people to be storytellers using video. And there are also real potential avenues for misuse.” 

OpenAI is well aware of the risks that come with a generative video model. We are already seeing the large-scale misuse of deepfake images . Photorealistic video takes this to another level.

Gregory notes that you could use technology like this to misinform people about conflict zones or protests. The range of styles is also interesting, he says. If you could generate shaky footage that looked like something shot with a phone, it would come across as more authentic.

The tech is not there yet, but generative video has gone from zero to Sora in just 18 months. “We’re going to be entering a universe where there will be fully synthetic content, human-generated content and a mix of the two,” says Gregory.

The OpenAI team plans to draw on the safety testing it did last year for DALL-E 3. Sora already includes a filter that runs on all prompts sent to the model that will block requests for violent, sexual, or hateful images, as well as images of known people. Another filter will look at frames of generated videos and block material that violates OpenAI’s safety policies.

OpenAI says it is also adapting a fake-image detector developed for DALL-E 3 to use with Sora. And the company will embed industry-standard C2PA tags , metadata that states how an image was generated, into all of Sora’s output. But these steps are far from foolproof. Fake-image detectors are hit-or-miss. Metadata is easy to remove, and most social media sites strip it from uploaded images by default.  

“We’ll definitely need to get more feedback and learn more about the types of risks that need to be addressed with video before it would make sense for us to release this,” says Ramesh.

Brooks agrees. “Part of the reason that we’re talking about this research now is so that we can start getting the input that we need to do the work necessary to figure out how it could be safely deployed,” he says.

Update 2/15: Comments from Sam Gregory were added .

Artificial intelligence

Ai for everything: 10 breakthrough technologies 2024.

Generative AI tools like ChatGPT reached mass adoption in record time, and reset the course of an entire industry.

What’s next for AI in 2024

Our writers look at the four hot trends to watch out for this year

  • Melissa Heikkilä archive page

Google’s Gemini is now in everything. Here’s how you can try it out.

Gmail, Docs, and more will now come with Gemini baked in. But Europeans will have to wait before they can download the app.

Deploying high-performance, energy-efficient AI

Investments into downsized infrastructure can help enterprises reap the benefits of AI while mitigating energy consumption, says corporate VP and GM of data center platform engineering and architecture at Intel, Zane Ball.

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  1. Research Report

    Research Report Definition: Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.

  2. Research Report: Definition, Types + [Writing Guide]

    A research report is a document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It can be written for qualitative or quantitative research, and it serves as a first-hand account of the research process and its results. Learn how to create a detailed and informative research report with this guide.

  3. Research Reports: Definition and How to Write Them

    The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new strategies. Certain events, facts, and other information based on incidents need to be relayed to the people in charge, and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool.

  4. Research report

    A research report is a publication that reports on the findings of a research project. [1]

  5. Writing up a Research Report

    Write up a state-of-the-art research report. Understand how to use scientific language in research reports. Develop a structure for your research report that comprises all relevant sections. Assess the consistency of your research design. Avoid dumbfounding your reader with surprising information.

  6. What Is a Research Paper?

    Research papers require students and academics to locate information about a topic (that is, to conduct research ), take a stand on that topic, and provide support (or evidence) for that position in an organized report.

  7. Research Report: Definition

    A research report provides a detailed analysis of the research problem, research questions, methodology, findings, and conclusions. It is often written in a formal and structured format and includes a range of sections, such as an introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion.

  8. PDF Writing a Research Report

    A research report is one type that is often used in the sciences, engineering and psychology. Here your aim is to write clearly and concisely about your research topic so that the reader can easily understand the purpose and results of your research. Structure

  9. Research reports

    An outline of the research questions and hypotheses; the assumptions or propositions that your research will test. Not all research reports have a separate literature review section. In shorter research reports, the review is usually part of the Introduction. A literature review is a critical survey of recent relevant research in a particular ...

  10. PDF THE RESEARCH REPORT

    1 THE RESEARCH REPORT This chapter gives attention to two primary topics, both of which present information about research reports. The first part deals with the many valuable things that can be found in research reports beyond the obvious—the results. In the second part we discuss what a research report is and what it is not.

  11. What Is Research Report? Definition, Contents, Significance, Qualities

    Research reporting is the oral or written presentation of the findings in such detail and form as to be readily understood and assessed by the society, economy or particularly by the researchers. As earlier said that it is the final stage of the research process and its purpose is to convey to interested persons the whole result of the study.

  12. How to Write a Research Paper

    A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides analysis, interpretation, and argument based on in-depth independent research. Research papers are similar to academic essays, but they are usually longer and more detailed assignments, designed to assess not only your writing skills but also your skills in scholarly research ...

  13. Research Reports

    Research report: the presentation of the research and its results in a rigorously formatted document that follows a conventional structure. In presenting your research, you pull all its elements together into a focused, coherent document. Research reports contain a standard set of elements that include front matter body end matter

  14. PDF How to Write an Effective Research REport

    Abstract. This guide for writers of research reports consists of practical suggestions for writing a report that is clear, concise, readable, and understandable. It includes suggestions for terminology and notation and for writing each section of the report—introduction, method, results, and discussion. Much of the guide consists of ...

  15. Research Report Meaning, Characteristics and Types

    A research report is a document that conveys the outcomes of a study or investigation. Its purpose is to communicate the research's findings, conclusions, and implications to a particular audience. This report aims to offer a comprehensive and unbiased overview of the research process, methodology, and results.

  16. (Pdf) Writing Research Report

    Definition of Research Report; Types of Report; Components of A Research Report; Common Sections of A Research Report; APA Style Essentials; Citing and Referencing Sources; Footnotes; Suggestions ...

  17. (PDF) Research Methodology WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

    A research report is a publication that reports on the findings of a research project or alternatively scientific observations on or about a subject.Normally the research assignments like projects ...

  18. Writing a Research Paper Introduction

    Table of contents. Step 1: Introduce your topic. Step 2: Describe the background. Step 3: Establish your research problem. Step 4: Specify your objective (s) Step 5: Map out your paper. Research paper introduction examples. Frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

  19. Research Methods

    Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make. First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question:

  20. What Is a Research Report? How They're Produced and Impact

    A research report is a document prepared by an analyst or strategist who is a part of the investment research team in a stock brokerage or investment bank. A research report may focus on a...

  21. Research Definition & Meaning

    especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws 2 : the collecting of information about a particular subject 3 : careful or diligent search research 2 of 2 verb

  22. Writing a Field Report

    We are all observers of people, their interactions, places, and events; however, your responsibility when writing a field report is to conduct research based on data generated by the act of designing a specific study, deliberate observation, synthesis of key findings, and interpretation of their meaning. When writing a field report you need to:

  23. CDC Laboratory Recommendations for Syphilis

    Summary. This report provides new CDC recommendations for tests that can support a diagnosis of syphilis, including serologic testing and methods for the identification of the causative agent Treponema pallidum.These comprehensive recommendations are the first published by CDC on laboratory testing for syphilis, which has traditionally been based on serologic algorithms to detect a humoral ...

  24. Introducing Gemini 1.5, Google's next-generation AI model

    Gemini 1.5 delivers dramatically enhanced performance. It represents a step change in our approach, building upon research and engineering innovations across nearly every part of our foundation model development and infrastructure. This includes making Gemini 1.5 more efficient to train and serve, with a new Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture.

  25. 6 work and workplace trends to watch in 2024

    Digital jobs could help to balance skill shortages in higher-income countries, while boosting opportunities for younger workers in lower-income countries: "If managed well, global digital jobs present an opportunity to utilize talent around the world, widening the talent pool available to employers and providing economic growth pathways to countries across the income spectrum."

  26. What Is a Research Design

    A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about: Your overall research objectives and approach. Whether you'll rely on primary research or secondary research. Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects. Your data collection methods.

  27. Sora (text-to-video model)

    Sora is a text-to-video model developed by the U.S.-based artificial intelligence (AI) research organization OpenAI. It can generate videos based on descriptive prompts as well as extend existing videos forwards or backwards in time. As of February 2024, it is unreleased and not yet available to the public.

  28. OpenAI teases an amazing new generative video model called Sora

    OpenAI has built a striking new generative video model called Sora that can take a short text description and turn it into a detailed, high-definition film clip up to a minute long.. Based on four ...