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On Mars, a Year of Surprise and Discovery

The past 12 months on Mars have been both “exciting” and “exhausting” for scientists and engineers minding the Perseverance rover and Ingenuity helicopter. And the mission is only really getting started.

mars research report

By Kenneth Chang

A year ago, NASA’s Perseverance rover was accelerating to a collision with Mars, nearing its destination after a 290-million-mile, seven-month journey from Earth.

On Feb. 18 last year, the spacecraft carrying the rover pierced the Martian atmosphere at 13,000 miles per hour. In just seven minutes — what NASA engineers call “seven minutes of terror” — it had to pull off a series of maneuvers to place Perseverance gently on the surfac e.

Given the minutes of delay for radio communications to crisscross the solar system, the people in mission control at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California were merely spectators that day. If anything had gone wrong, they would not have had any time to attempt a fix, and the $2.7 billion mission, to search for evidence that something once lived on the red planet, would have ended in a newly excavated crater.

But Perseverance performed perfectly, sending home exhilarating video footage as it landed . And NASA added to its collection of robots exploring Mars.

“The vehicle itself is just doing phenomenally well,” Jennifer Trosper, the project manager for Perseverance, said.

Twelve months later, Perseverance is nestled within a 28-mile-wide crater known as Jezero . From the topography, it is evident that more than three billion years ago, Jezero was a body of water roughly the size of Lake Tahoe, with rivers flowing in from the west and out to the east.

One of the first things Perseverance did was deploy Ingenuity, a small robotic helicopter and the first such flying machine to take off on another planet. Perseverance also demonstrated a technology for generating oxygen that will be crucial whenever astronauts finally make it to Mars.

The rover then set off on a diversion from the original exploration plans, to study the floor of the crater it landed in. The rocks there turned out not to be what scientists were expecting. It ran into trouble a couple of times when it tried to collect cores of rock — cylinders about the size of sticks of chalk — that are eventually to be brought back to Earth by a future mission. Engineers were able to solve the problems and most everything is going well.

“It’s been a very exciting year, exhausting at times,” said Joel Hurowitz, a professor of geosciences at Stony Brook University in New York who is a member of the mission’s science team. “The pace of work has been pretty incredible.”

mars research report

After months of scrutinizing the crater floor, the mission team is now preparing to head for the main scientific event: investigating a dried-up river delta along the west rim of Jezero.

That is where scientists expect to find sedimentary rocks that are most likely to contain blockbuster discoveries, maybe even signs of ancient Martian life — if any ancient life ever existed on Mars.

“Deltas are, at least on Earth, habitable environments,” said Amy Williams, a professor of geology at the University of Florida and a member of the Perseverance science team. “There’s water. There’s active sediment being transported from a river into a lake.”

Such sediments can capture and preserve carbon-based molecules that are associated with life. “That’s an excellent place to look for organic carbon,” Dr. Williams said. “So hopefully, organic carbon that’s indigenous to Mars is concentrated in those layers.”

Perseverance landed not much more than a mile from the delta. Even at a distance, the rover’s eagle-eyed camera could make out the expected sedimentary layers. There were also boulders, some as large as cars, sitting on the delta, rocks that were washed into the crater.

“This all tells a fascinating story,” said Jim Bell, a planetary scientist at Arizona State University.

The data confirm that what orbital images suggested was a river delta is indeed that and that the history of water here was complex. The boulders, which almost certainly came from the surrounding highlands, point to episodes of violent flooding at Jezero.

“It wasn’t just slow, gentle deposition of fine grained silt and sand and mud,” said Dr. Bell, who serves as principal investigator for the sophisticated cameras mounted on Perseverance’s mast.

Mission managers had originally planned to head directly to the delta from the landing site. But the rover set down in a spot where the direct route was blocked by sand dunes that it could not cross.

The geological formations to the south intrigued them.

“We landed in a surprising location, and made the best of it,” said Kenneth Farley, a geophysicist at the California Institute of Technology who serves as the project scientist leading the research.

Because Jezero is a crater that was once a lake, the expectation was that its bottom would be rocks that formed out of the sediments that settled to the bottom.

But at first glance, the lack of layers meant “they did not look obviously sedimentary,” said Kathryn Stack Morgan of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the deputy project scientist. At the same time, nothing clearly suggested they were volcanic in origin, either.

“It’s really turned into a detective story sort of about why this region is one of the most geologically unusual in the planet,” said Nicholas Tosca, a professor of mineralogy and petrology at the University of Cambridge in England and a member of the science team.

As the scientists and engineers contemplated whether to circle around to the north or to the south, the team that built a robotic helicopter named Ingenuity got to try out their creation.

The helicopter was a late addition to the mission, meant as a proof-of-concept for flying through the thin air of Mars.

On April 18 last year, Ingenuity rose to a height of 10 feet, hovered for 30 seconds, and then descended back to the ground. The flight lasted 39.1 seconds.

Over the following weeks, Ingenuity made four more flights of increasing time, speed and velocity.

mars research report

That was supposed to be the end of the helicopter’s mission. Perseverance was to leave it behind and head off on its scientific research.

But NASA decided five flights were not enough. When Perseverance set off to explore the rocks to the south, Ingenuity went along, now scouting the terrain ahead of the rover.

That helped avoid wasting time driving to unexceptional rocks that had looked potentially interesting in images taken from orbit.

“We sent the helicopter and saw the images, and it looked very similar to where we were,” Ms. Trosper said. “And so we chose not to drive.”

The helicopter continues to fly. It just completed its 19th flight, and it remains in good condition. The batteries are still holding a charge. The helicopter has shown it can fly in the colder, thinner air of the winter months. It was able to shake off most of the dust that fell on it during a dust storm in January.

“Everything’s looking green across the board,” said Theodore Tzanetos, who leads the Ingenuity team at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

In the exploration of the rocks to the south of the landing site, scientists solved some of their secrets when the rover used its drill to grind shallow holes in a couple of them.

“Oh wow, these look volcanic,” Dr. Stack Morgan said, remembering her reaction. “Exactly what you’d expect for a basaltic lava flow.”

The tools that Perseverance carries to study the ingredients of Martian rocks can take measurements pinpointed on bits of rock as small as a grain of sand. And cameras on the robotic arm can take close-up pictures.

Those observations revealed large grains of olivine, an igneous mineral that can accumulate at the bottom of a large lava flow. Later fractures emerged between the olivine grains that were filled with carbonates, a mineral that forms through interactions with water.

The thinking now is that the Jezero crater floor is the same olivine-rich volcanic rock that orbiting spacecraft have observed in the region. It might have formed before the crater filled with water.

Sediments from the lake probably did cover the rock, with water percolating through the sediments to fill the fractures with carbonate. Then, slowly, over a few billion years, winds blew the sediments away.

That the wispy air on Mars could erode so much rock is hard for geologists on Earth to wrap their minds around.

“You don’t find landscapes that are even close to that on Earth,” Dr. Farley said.

mars research report

The most troublesome moments during the first year have occurred during the collection of rock samples. For decades, planetary scientists have dreamed that pieces of Mars could be brought to Earth, where they could study them with state-of-the-art instruments in laboratories.

Perseverance is the first step in turning that dream into reality by drilling cores of rock and sealing them in tubes. The rover, however, has no means to get the rock samples off Mars and back to Earth; that awaits another mission known as Mars Sample Return , a collaboration between NASA and the European Space Agency.

During the development of Perseverance’s drill, engineers tested it with a wide variety of Earth rocks. But then the very first rock on Mars that Perseverance tried to drill turned out to be unlike all of the Earth rocks.

The rock in essence turned to dust during the drilling and slid out of the tube. After several successes, another drilling attempt ran into problems. Pebbles fell out of the tube in an inconvenient part of the rover — the carousel where the drilling bits are stored — and that required weeks of troubleshooting to clean away the debris.

“That was exciting, not necessarily in the best way,” Dr. Stack Morgan said. “The rest of our exploration has gone really well.”

Perseverance will at some point drop off some of its rock samples for a rover on the Mars Sample Return mission to pick up. That is to prevent the nightmare scenario that Perseverance dies and there is no way to extricate the rocks it is carrying.

The top speed of Perseverance is the same as that of Curiosity, the rover NASA landed in another crater in 2012. But improved self-driving software means it can cover longer distances in a single drive. To get to the delta, Perseverance needs to retrace its path to the landing site and then take a route around the sand dunes to the north.

It could arrive at the delta by late May or early June. Ingenuity will try to stay ahead of Perseverance.

The helicopter flies faster than the rover can drive, but after each flight, its solar panels have to soak up several days of sunshine to recharge the batteries. Perseverance, powered by the heat from a hunk of plutonium, can drive day after day after day.

The helicopter, however, might be able to take a shortcut across the sand dunes.

“We’re planning to get to the delta,” Mr. Tzanetos said. “And we’re discussing what happens beyond the river delta.”

But, he added that every day could be the last for Ingenuity, which was designed to last only a month. “You hope that you’re lucky enough to keep flying,” he said, “and we’re going to keep that streak going for as long as we can.”

Once Perseverance gets to the delta, the most electrifying discovery would be images of what looked to be microscopic fossils. In that case, “we have to start asking whether some globs of organic matter are arranged in a shape that outlines a cell,” said Tanja Bosak, a geobiologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

It is unlikely Perseverance will see anything that is unequivocally a remnant of a living organism. That is why it is crucial for the rocks to be brought to Earth for closer examination.

Dr. Bosak does not have a strong opinion on whether there was ever life on Mars.

“We are really trying to peer into the time where we have very little knowledge,” she said. “We have no idea when chemical processes came together to form the first cell. And so we may be looking at something that was just learning to be life.”

Kenneth Chang has been at The Times since 2000, writing about physics, geology, chemistry, and the planets. Before becoming a science writer, he was a graduate student whose research involved the control of chaos. More about Kenneth Chang

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  • v.3(1); 2019 Jan

Mars Colonization: Beyond Getting There

Igor levchenko.

1 Plasma Sources and Applications Centre/Space Propulsion Centre, NIE, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637616, Singapore

2 School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia

Stéphane Mazouffre

3 CNRS, ICARE, Electric Propulsion Team, 1c Avenue de la Recherche Scientifique, 45071, Orléans, France

Michael Keidar

4 Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, George Washington University, Washington, DC, 20052, USA

Kateryna Bazaka

Colonization of Mars: As humans gradually overcome technological challenges of deep space missions, the possibility of exploration and colonization of extraterrestrial outposts is being seriously considered by space agencies and commercial entities alike. But should we do it just because we potentially can? Is such an undoubtedly risky adventure justified from the economic, legal, and ethical points of view? And even if it is, do we have a system of instruments necessary to effectively and fairly manage these aspects of colonization? In this essay, a rich diversity of current opinions on the pros and cons of Mars colonization voiced by space enthusiasts with backgrounds in space technology, economics, and materials science are examined.

1. Mars Colonization—Do We Need It?

Mars: Among other potential outposts, the Red Planet has always been shrouded by a veil of romanticism and mystery. Beyond an active target for space exploration, colonization of Mars has become a popular topic nowadays, fuelled by a potentially naive and somewhat questionable belief that this planet could at some point in time be terraformed to sustain human life. 1 Indeed, the Moon, while very close, is small, barren and devoid of atmosphere. Life on the Moon base would not differ from that in the lifeless desert, with no hope of ever finding water. Other neighboring planets, such as hot Venus and gas giants Jupiter and Saturn, are no more suitable for human habitation.

Mars, however, is a horse of a different color. With a mean radius of 0.53 of that of Earth,, i.e., a surface area nearly equal to the total area of dry land on our planet, and 0.38 of Earth's surface gravity ( Figure 1 ), Mars is thought to provide a potentially much more benevolent environment for the colonists from Earth compared to any other proximate planet. Moreover, promising results obtained by rovers and a low‐frequency radar installed on the Mars Express spacecraft have long sustained the belief that it might be possible to find undersurface and subglacial liquid water. 2 Furthermore, similar to Earth, Mars is expected to have substantial mineral resource at and under its surface layer, with a recently confirmed evidence of metal ores and other vital mineral substances. 3 Although no one has seriously demonstrated a practical means for the extraction and refining of these resources into useful products on Mars, a distant possibility of doing so is considered a principal point in favor of colonization. These features of the Red Planet have firmly cemented its status as an ultimate space colonization destination for near future, 4 despite the obvious immediate challenges such as a dusty carbon dioxide‐rich atmosphere, the pressure of which is reaching only 0.09 atm.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is GCH2-3-1800062-g001.jpg

Composite image that shows the relative dimensions of Earth and Mars. The image of Earth was captured from the Galileo orbiter at about 6:10 a.m. Pacific Standard Time on December 11, 1990, when it was at a distance of ≈2.1 million kilometers away from Earth during the first of two Earth flybys on its journey to Jupiter. The image of Mars was captured by the Mars Global Surveyor in April of 1999. Image credit: NASA/Jet propulsion Lab. 5

Intense efforts by the world's space agencies and more recently, private enterprises have brought us ever closer to having broad technical capabilities to transport a small number of colonizers and equipment to Mars. These capabilities have been discussed in detail in several comprehensive review and opinion articles that describe various opportunities and challenges facing the Mars settlement program. 6 Proponents of Mars colonization consider present space technology as nearing the stage when it will be able to provide the necessary level of reliability and efficiency required for the one way journey from Earth to Mars. Indeed, a recent example of successful firing of thrusters on Voyager 1 after 37 years of space operation 7 attests to our ability to overcome such significant challenges of spacecraft development 8 , 9 as longevity, reliability, and operational readiness decades after launching. Ongoing advances in nanotechnology and materials engineering enhanced reliability and expanded functionality of contemporary electronics and robotics while reducing device mass, volume, and power consumption. 10 The affordability of small space assets has enabled greater exploration of space, allowing space agencies, universities, and commercial players to collect vital information about extraterrestrial environments in which space assets and living subject will be required to operate, guiding and informing the development of colonization programs. 11

Is it time to go extra‐terrestrial? Mars One program has beenoperating since 2012 and, considering the present level of financial and public support, it is very likely to continue. 12 Falcon Heavy, presently the world's most powerful rocket capable of delivering about 17 tons to Mars surface, was successfully launched on 6 February 2018, demonstrating its capacity to deliver payloads within the framework of Mars One program. 13 In parallel, efforts are made to develop plausible geodynamic scenarios and define relevant parameters, 14 including ambitious ideas of future Mars terraforming. 15 Materials suited for Mars‐oriented applications and operation environments are also under active development. 16 Technical aspects of these projects are described in numerous roadmaps and system architecture description documents. 17 To some, these developments provide confidence that it will indeed be possible to begin colonization of Mars within our lifetime, at least from a technological point of view. And there is certainly no lack of volunteers keen to take on the challenge of a 7 month long one‐way journey to the Red Planet. Indeed, since Mars One's call, thousands have applied and about 100 have been preselected as potential candidates to make up the first crew of four astronauts to be sent to Mars in 2031. 18

Upon reaching the surface, the astronauts will be expected to establish a permanent settlement on Mars, collecting vital data and conducting experiments, with the clear expectation never to return to Earth again ( Figure 2 ). 19

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Object name is GCH2-3-1800062-g002.jpg

Modular Martian settlement (artistic representation). Several alternative modular concepts have been proposed, including one by Mars One. 11

Settlement of Mars—is it a dream or a necessity? From scientific publications to public forms, there is certainly little consensus on whether colonization of Mars is necessary or even possible, with a rich diversity of opinions that range from categorical It is a necessity! 20 to equally categorical Should Humans Colonize Other Planets? No. 21 A strong proponent of the idea, Orwig puts forward five reasons for Mars colonization, implicitly stating that establishing a permanent colony of humans on Mars is no longer an option but a real necessity. 20

Specifically, these arguments are:

  • Survival of humans as a species;
  • Exploring the potential of life on Mars to sustain humans;
  • Using space technology to positively contribute to our quality of life, from health to minimizing and reversing negative aspects of anthropogenic activity of humans on Earth;
  • Developing as a species;
  • Gaining political and economic leadership.

The first argument captures the essence of what most space colonization proponents feel—our ever growing environmental footprint threatens the survival of human race on Earth. Indeed, a large body of evidence points to human activity as the main cause of extinction of many species, with shrinking biodiversity and depleting resources threatening the very survival of humans on this planet. Colonization of other planets could potentially increase the probability of our survival.

While being at the core of such ambitious projects as Mars One, a self‐sustained colony of any size on Mars is hardly feasible in the foreseeable future. Indeed, sustaining even a small number of colonists would require a continuous supply of food, oxygen, water and basic materials. At this stage, it is not clear whether it would be possible to establish a system that would generate these resources locally, or whether it would at least in part rely on the delivery of these resources (or essential components necessary for their local production) from Earth. Beyond the supply of these very basic resources, it would be quite challenging if not impossible for the colonists to independently produce hi‐tech but vitally important assets such as medicines, electronics and robotics systems, or advanced materials that provide us with a decent quality of life. In this case, would their existence become little more than the jogtrot of life, as compared with the standards expected at the Earth? 22

This brings us to the second argument—in order to deliver any positive change to the quality of life of humans on Earth, the question of Mars colonization should not only be about survival but also about development if it is to present a viable alternative to our current existence. Such development is inherently linked to the availability of local resources required to sustain life, which is in turn reliant on the availability of instrumentation and equipment necessary for their discovery, extraction and refining. There is little doubt that in early stages of Mars colonization, the greatest fraction of the payload delivered to Mars will be dedicated to equipment needed to provide critical infrastructure and sustain the most fundamental needs of the colony, and not scientific instruments for greater Mars exploration. However, it should be noted that with recent advancements in miniaturized, energy‐efficient electronic and robotics devices, it may in principle be possible to deliver a highly functional yet compact automated laboratory to Mars. A recent breakthrough discovery of (possible) ancient “building blocks of life” made by Curiosity rover greatly supports this notion. 23 , 24 Where Curiosity accommodates only 6.8 kg of scientific instruments, the scientific capabilities of a high‐tech laboratory delivered by one of Mars One landing units solely dedicated to such a mission (i.e., not carrying humans and related resources) could be quite considerable.

The third argument relates to technological advances related to space exploration, specifically how technologies that we may develop in our effort to colonize Mars may find their way into our daily life and deliver unintended benefits. As an example, Orwig points to the image analysis algorithm originally developed for extracting information from blurry images received from Hubble Space Telescope. After the technology was shared with a medical practitioner and as a result applied to medical images, such as X‐ray images, it enabled more accurate visualization of breast tissues affected by cancer, and subsequently led to the development of a minimally invasive stereotactic large‐core needle biopsy. 25 In a separate study, the sequencing and analysis methods developed by NASA to detect and characterize bacterial species on spacecraft to effectively prevent contamination of other worlds with Earth's biota was used to study the link between microorganisms in breast ductal fluid and breast cancer. 26

Finally, the fourth and fifth arguments refer to Mars colonization as an opportunity for humans to grow as a civilization, actively changing the way in which we interact with and exploit our environment. Indeed, in this aspect we can (following Pyne) consider Mars colonization as a kind of cultural invention. 27 Looking back to the Age of Exploration, could the exploration of near‐Earth space together with the Mars and Moon colonization be judged as unavoidable and intuitive continuation of processes started at the dawn of human civilization? Some would argue so, as Shiga points out: “All of the space shuttles – and the ill‐fated Mars rover, Beagle – were named after famous sea vessels.” 28 To many, such a deep attachment to rich history of nautical exploration certainly confirms this hypothesis.

At this point, it is not entirely clear what opportunities and challenges living on Mars will present, and how we as a species would respond to these, but there are certainly calls to embrace innovation and sustainability as the only means to ensure the quality of life for generations to come. Yet, who will oversee and enforce these ideals? Indeed, at its early stages of settlement, the small colony is likely to be composed of altruistic, selfless, technologically savvy individuals who may thrive in an equitable and libertarian society and may be prepared to sacrifice individual desires and benefits for the greater good of the group. However, it is far less likely that such a system can be sustained once the population of colonists grows to thousands and millions and becomes more diverse. Inevitably, a socioeconomic and political order will emerge, and it is likely to be different from the initial system. Would it be possible not to repeat mistakes that we have made when colonizing continents here on Earth?

As we race toward realizing technical aspects of Mars colonization, these and other questions certainly warrant further investigation and discussion. Should we spend a tremendous amount of intellectual, financial and material resources on a distant dream over addressing immediate and highly pressing problems that threaten our very existence on Earth? And is having technological capacity to get there a good enough reason for colonization? In the remainder of this Essay, we will briefly introduce a number of opinions on these issues from stakeholders and space science enthusiasts with diverse backgrounds.

2. Legal Considerations

Right now, the Outer Space Treaty 29 is the main document that governs international cooperation and intercommunication around space and other celestial bodies. While the Outer Space Treaty does not prohibit colonization of Mars, building a permanent colony on the surface of Mars will certainly call for the development of a new system of laws and regulations, which potential colonists would be required to abide by, and which would take precedence over any laws and regulations governing their country of origin. As already mentioned earlier, this may be possible for a small group of like‐minded individuals with common values. Yet, as the colony grows and becomes more diverse with respect to customs, beliefs, traditions and ways of thinking, this may become increasingly challenging. Will it be easy for all interested parties to outline and accept such “Mars constitution”? The success of this endeavor is at the very least questionable, since the major space‐faring nations could not even sign off on The Moon Treaty. 30 , 31 Now, we see efforts by the United Nations to initiate the coordination of space‐related activities, 32 along with active public debates on this problem. 33 , 34 Below we outline some specific legal considerations raised in the recent publications on the topic.

2.1. Do Earth Laws Apply To Mars Colonists?

A set of fundamental questions regarding governance on Mars was formulated by a known proponent of Mars colonization, professor of space law Dunk and discussed by Fecht in her paper Do Earth laws apply to mars colonists ? 35 , 36 Since the demise of Soviet Union, the funding for many national space programs, such as NASA, has not experienced a significant increase, thus keeping the available financial and human resources at a relatively stable level. 37 This provided private companies, such as those led by Musk, an opportunity to emerge and eventually become critical players in space exploration and colonization. Signed in 1967 when space exploration was dominated by nations and not private companies, the current Treaty does not preclude the latter from travelling to Mars, as pointed out by Dunk. 35 , 38 According to his interpretation, private companies can deliver payloads to the surface of the Red Planet and settle on it permanently. We should mention here that the Outer Space Treaty has an international character and does not list specific regulations. However, it does prohibit potential settlers from launching weapons of mass destruction and defining land ownership. These laws are modeled on those on Earth, where deployment of any rocket into space requires multiple levels of authorization at the government and international levels, with the specifics defined by the nature of proposed activities in space. For instance, the launch and operation of a telecom satellite requires approval by the Federal Communications Commission. 39 As global activities in space increase and the number of private enterprises engaged in space exploration grows rapidly, we should expect significant changes in the active regulatory environment in the near future.

While Mars One project has an essentially international character, it still may be bound by the US laws depending on the level of participation of American companies in the project. Mars One is known to rely on third‐party vendors for heavy rocket platforms, with the SpaceX Falcon Heavy, and possibly SLS 40 and BFR 41 being the only realistic options in the near future. Regardless of the country from which it is launched, the rocket produced by an American company will be regarded as an American ship, and, following a very similar approach that governs the behavior of sea‐fairing ships, the space ship would have to abide by the laws of the US legal system. In yet another analogy to the maritime system, the surface of Mars would not belong to any particular country or entity, just as international waters do not belong to any nation. Indeed, even upon reaching the surface of Mars and disembarking the ship, the colonists would be expected to follow the rules of the country that has jurisdiction over their ship. Furthermore, any permanent outpost would be expected to develop an independent governing system, yet the nature of this system is debatable. 35

Recent important efforts to develop an updated legislative system, such as U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act 42 and Act of 20 July 2017 on the exploration and use of space resources 43 aim to go beyond the Outer Space Treaty. These two sets of laws postulate that space resources can indeed be used and exploited by private companies and investors.

On one hand, the early system may capture and be driven by the altruistic nature of early settlers. At the same time, those first settlers will also be subject to a harsh environment, very limited resources and extreme social isolation and uncertainty, potentially necessitating a system that is more hierarchical and rigid. As the colony grows, an increasingly complex legal system may emerge on the back of multifaceted socioeconomic processes, yet it is still likely to be affected by scarcity of resources and a psychologically challenging living environment. As such, it would be necessary to create an authority that would enforce these laws, ensure their effectiveness, and manage those situations where these laws are challenged. Indeed, the latter is inevitable, both because the laws must evolve to adequately reflect a dynamic socioeconomic and technological environment, as well as for the reasons of human nature, where one has a propensity to take advantage of others. 44 With these factors considered, it is difficult to imagine that modern legal systems we currently have on Earth would be appropriate to govern the life on Mars.

2.2. Sovereignty

The question of sovereignty of permanent colonies on the surface of Mars and, possibly, in the Martian orbit is one that at present is not well articulated or defined in the current version of the Outer Space Treaty. At present, it is not possible for a nation or an entity to lay claim of sovereignty over a celestial body or any artificial habitable human outpost, such as a space station. However, it is not clear whether this principle can be upheld as we move into advanced stages of peaceful space colonization, such as that of Mars. Multiple models have been proposed. For instance, Bruhns and Haqq‐Misra suggest a so‐called “pragmatic approach to sovereignty on Mars”, where they explore the benefits of adopting a policy that balances “bounded first possession” against mandatory planetary parks. The former would allow nations to hold legal jurisdiction and exclusive rights to economic benefits derived from a parcel of land, whereas the latter would enable protection of areas of natural, ecological, scientific or cultural significance for the benefit of global community. The proponents of this approach assume that the private property rights‐based economy is the best option for the development of Mars society, and it may indeed be so for the advanced stage of Mars colonization. The relationships between such colonies would be managed diplomatically in accordance with international treaties, and if necessary, the resolution of conflicts may be administered by a formal commission, agency or tribunal with representatives from Mars colonies. Indeed, Bruhns and Haqq‐Misra suggest establishing a Mars Secretariat, the role of which would be to formally enable and facilitate diplomatic communication between interested parties. Broadly, this approach reflects the general principles of the Outer Space Treaty, while providing a more practical model for the management of resources and economic benefits that can be derived from Martian colonies by introducing changes to the non‐appropriation and province of mankind principles. 45 Clarification of the rules that govern the derivation and use of Martian resources by nations and private entities is essential to avoid conflict between future colonies at the stage when resource extraction and exchange would become possible.

2.3. Human Rights

It remains a subject of debate to which extent human rights can be ensured when one considers establishing a permanent colony on Mars. Indeed, there is little doubt that the journey first colonists undertake would be a “one‐way” endeavor. That is, they will have no physical means of ever returning to Earth. The romanticism of being the first to plant a step on the surface of Mars and the overall sense of this effort as being a giant leap for humanity has led to many expressing their strong interest in taking part in the project. At present, these enthusiasts are prepared to sign over their most basic rights of free choice of residence, profession, right to adequate medical treatment and many others for this opportunity. But do we have a legal and in fact a moral right to knowingly subject others to such a life, even with their consent? Below are examples of three different considerations that could play a significant role in such a discussion.

In the first scenario, let us consider a physical illness or mental breakdown that would lead to the volunteer requesting to withdraw their consent to be part of this journey. Would the organizers have a legal right to enforce the original agreement when the participant invokes their human rights and requests their return to Earth through a legal mechanism? Indeed, let us imagine an Earth‐based experiment where a person is subjected to the life‐term isolation in a relatively good, yet significantly restricted environment, e.g., an Antarctic base. The volunteers would document their consent to spend the rest of their lives under the experimental conditions, however at some stage would change their mind and withdraw their consent, requesting that they are removed from the experiment. Would the legal system and public opinion support the company in their choice of forcefully retaining the volunteer under experimental conditions in accordance with their original properly documented consent agreement? It is difficult to imagine that they would, as this would violate the basic human rights of the individual. If so, who will be financially responsible for retrieving these volunteers and returning them to Earth? This situation merits careful legal consideration prior to such a flight.

Let us consider the second scenario where the volunteer legally challenges the agreement on the basis of failure of the entity to comply with promises and conditions of the original agreement. It is hardly difficult to imagine that the reality and specific conditions of life on Mars will be different from even our best estimates and expectations. If these differences are quite substantial, mission participants may give legal grounds for a complaint. Considering that the first wave of colonizers may remain formally under jurisdiction of their country of origin, they would likely retain the full rights to call on their respective legal system and body of authority to protect their interests. Not only can it develop into a complicated legal case for which no precedent exists, it may potentially force the entity in question to take certain measures and as a result jeopardize the success of the mission or program. It is therefore likely that a range of legal and financial obligations will be placed on travel organizers to deal with such complaints. While it may be impossible to retrieve and return colonists to Earth during early stages of colonization, technological advances may eventually make such missions technically possible but prohibitively expensive endeavors. In the worst case scenario, a court's order may be issued, with the enforcement machinery ordering the organizers to take actions on starting the “return project.”

The third scenario that we are going to consider relates to the rights of children born on Mars. Reproductive rights are at the core of many legal systems, and as such would apply to colonists that settle on Mars. These include the right to decide on the number and spacing of offspring, and the right to attain an appropriate level of sexual and reproductive healthcare. Thus, one would expect children to be born on Mars. In fact, some argue that these children would be critical for the long‐term success of the colony as they should be better suited, both physically and psychologically, to the unique living conditions of the Red Planet. They would also be the driving force for the growth and development of the colony, as one could hardly expect all of its inhabitants to be shipped from Earth.

Again, drawing parallels to current legislation on Earth, children born to parents of particular nation would likely inherit the citizenship of their parents, able to exercise the rights of that particular legal system. This in itself may represent a challenge, since given a very small size of the colony, parents may belong to different systems, each having its own idea of how rights of children should be protected. Even within a single system, it is rather challenging to envisage what instruments and mechanisms will be put in place to protect the rights of children on Mars. Similarly, what authority would manage the relationships between children and their parents, or between parents in the case of their separation and divorce? Furthermore, community and family support are critical for families during the time of hardship or conflict, and children on Mars would most certainly lack this safety net.

However, before we even consider potential threats to children's health and wellbeing, at which point would standards of living on Mars reach a minimum acceptable level of health and safety for the reproduction to become ethical? Furthermore, even if we have sufficient technical capability to maintain a decent quality of health and safety of Mars, we would certainly not be able to provide the same degree of choice, e.g., in terms of education or profession, to these children as those available to children on Earth. What legal rights would these children have to request their relocation to Earth? Indeed, are we prepared to rationalize the life of isolation and restriction these children would have to endure—the life they have never consented to. Could—or should—they be considered by the relevant authorities as kids that are retained under what most describe as rather harsh or even inhumane living conditions? Article 6 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child states that “ Governments should ensure that children survive and develop healthily ”; article 24 states: “ Children have the right to good quality health care – the best health care possible .”; and Article 27 requests an adequate standard of living. 46

Apart from these legal considerations, ethical considerations related to the reproduction on Mars may be a significant issue, with some opinions presented in the following section.

We should also mention that these considerations are not exclusive to Mars. For instance, any woman of childbearing age is required to undergo mandatory pregnancy testing before she is allowed to take part in missions that involve extreme conditions, such as an expedition to Antarctica under the U.S. Antarctic Program. 47 And this is considering that it is possible and comparatively easy for the woman to be retrieved from the expedition in the case of medical emergency. In fact, the very nature of such expeditions is temporary, and all members are expected to return home within a relatively short period of time. This is in stark contrast to expeditions to Mars, where participants are expected to be responsible for their own healthcare and wellbeing and have to exclusively rely on their own human and technological capacity permanently.

Further, as the colonist population grows, it is likely that homicides, robberies, and other criminal actions will occur. These events would necessitate some form of criminal justice and punitive system to be established on Mars at the further stages of colonization to prosecute and deliver punitive measures to offenders. Yet, with every pair of hands and skill set being critical for the success of the colony, to which extent would conventional corrective actions be feasible within the unique environment of a space colony? Therefore, the question remains: which laws would apply?

2.4. Abortion

The issues around abortion are closely related to those of human rights, yet often are considered separately due to their intimate relationship to cultural and religious beliefs of different groups of people. Presently, in many nations abortion is viewed as a right of women and a matter of private choice, whereas in others it is legally considered a crime. Considering that a colony on Mars may comprise representatives from different cultural and religious belief systems, it may be difficult to design a policy that would be acceptable to all. Nevertheless, some expect the abortion policy of a Martian colony to be more liberal compared to that on Earth, particularly when it comes to choice based on medical grounds. Indeed, pregnancy termination may be required in instances where pregnancy endangers the life and health of the woman. Similarly, it is difficult to imagine that harsh Martian conditions would be suited for children with severe debilitating medical conditions simply due to the complete lack of infrastructure to afford them a decent quality of life. Caring for such a child would also be quite consuming in terms of time, human and physical resources, potentially redirecting these resources from activities critical to colony survival and development. Beyond these considerations, it is not clear what other medical and biological challenges of reproduction and living on Mars would inform the abortion policy. 48 It is likely that it would emerge and evolve in parallel with our understanding of what life on Mars would entail.

3. Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations and issues around Mars colonization can be intuitively separated into two significantly different groups of questions, namely:

  • • Ethical considerations with respect to humans, both colonists and people of Earth, and
  • • Ethical considerations towards Mars itself, including possible extra‐terrestrial life.

Both are important, and below we will outline some opinions, sometimes controversial, around the ethics related to Mars colonization.

3.1. General

Decades of intense efforts by thousands of people and billions of dollars in funding would likely culminate in sending a small group of four to five individuals on a one‐way trip to Mars. The success of the mission would depend on how well these individuals can work together to handle an environment that is extreme both physically and psychologically. It is therefore likely that the greater good of the group and thus the success of the mission would supersede that of individuals, a pattern of behavior that is not typical of people in their natural habitat due to the differences in judgment of values. For this reason, a framework of decisions that benefit the group over an individual is likely to be defined, with considerations over such personal matters as termination of defective fetuses, euthanasia of individuals suffering from incurable debilitating conditions, and the act of sacrifice of individual life for the sake of the colony. 48 There are evident similarities with sacrifices made by individuals during exploration endeavors during the Age of Discovery on Earth. 49 Yet, these historic experiences also tell us that it is virtually impossible to foresee and control the behavior of individuals and groups when subjected to extreme survival situations. From this perspective, it is difficult to say what control if any flight organizations would have over the life of the colony.

NASA Human Research Program aims to study the risks associated with space flight over extended periods of time. Isolation and closed environment are some of the known factors to cause psychiatric distress. 50 These medical conditions can be as damaging to the overall health of the space traveller and success of the mission as effects of space radiation, bone and muscle loss, and treatment of sustained injuries. Studies involving individuals and groups subjected to isolation have shown that social isolation stimulated brain activity toward short‐term self‐preservation, characterized by enhanced implicit vigilance for social threats even in the absence of thereof. Isolation also promoted more abrasive and defensive behavior in individuals, which may negatively affect the social dynamics of a small crew, even to the extent of mission sabotage. These issues, both psychological and physiological, are difficult if not impossible to address, and are independent of cultural, religious or educational background. Knowing the significant risks that cannot be mitigated, how can we make this venture ethical? Of course, all participants will be made fully aware of all known risks associated with the mission, and asked for their consent. However, does informed consent immediately make it ethical? Before we can answer this question, a wide discussion involving stakeholders and general public is certainly necessary to draw a line of what sacrifices are we prepared to take to make space travel and colonization a reality, and whether the benefits of spacefaring truly outweigh all the costs and risks of such adventures. 51

3.2. Human Reproduction—Ethical Considerations

Biological and social challenges of human reproduction at a permanent Mars base are one more serious consideration that could potentially undermine the success of extra‐terrestrial colonization. 48 Studies of human population dynamics on Earth suggest that the success of settlements on Mars would be inherently linked to the ability of early settlers to produce a certain number of viable offspring as these would be critical for the survival and growth of the colonies as self‐sustained entities. Resettlement of individuals from Earth should provide the foundations for a colony, yet overtime should become only a secondary source of residents. According to Impey, a population of at least 5000 is required to ensure long‐term survival of an extra‐terrestrial colony. 52 It is difficult to estimate the physical and financial resources that would be required to realize a colony of such a size on Mars, and without a doubt would take a number of decades from the first successful mission. Indeed, the SpaceX Interplanetary Transport System is expected to carry only a small number of passengers, with a real possibility that not all of these individuals would be able to survive the 7–9 month‐long journey and the initial period of settlement and adaptation on Mars. This is not to say that such large‐scale transportation missions are not being seriously considered, and overtime it is expected that these missions would become more affordable and safer.

It is also difficult to predict the number of individuals that would be prepared to travel to and live on Mars. Indeed, on Earth, migration is an ancient phenomenon, yet it often carries significant negative impacts on health and mental well‐being of both the migrants and the local population. 53 This is often due to a number of factors, such as being not fully prepared to commit and adjust to the new environment, differences in cultural, social and legal norms, and others. Differences in the physical environment may also negatively affect the physical health and wellbeing of newcomers. From this perspective, individuals that are born and brought up within the colony may be better suited to physical and psychological conditions of Mars, and as such may be better prepared to embrace life as part of a colony.

However, realizing sustainable human reproduction on Mars may not be without its challenges. For one, the number of available individuals would be small, affecting genetic diversity and increasing the likelihood of recessive genetic disorders. It will therefore be essential to enforce genetic, epigenetic and phenotypic screening of potential parents prior to conception, and then monitor the health and development of the fetus across all stages of the pregnancy to anticipate and minimize the risks of offspring being born with debilitating conditions. In addition to a legislative framework surrounding termination of fetuses that are unlikely to result in a birth of a healthy child, 48 the same body of arguments may be applied to define which members of the colony should be encouraged or actively discouraged from having offspring.

Another consideration is the potential threat to the entire colony that may arise as a result of reproduction. Indeed, the success of the mission during the journey and within the early stages of the settlement is inherently linked to efficient utilization of human and physical resources. Bearing a child would divert some of these critical (and very limited) resources from the needs of the crew and activities associated with the survival of the crew during the flight and on the surface. Clearly, this warrants further investigation to have a better understanding of all the challenges and opportunities presented by pregnancy and child bearing on health and wellbeing of the crew during early space missions. 54 , 55

Finally, the general question of the growth of population in Mars colonies could be an issue. Indeed, will “native” Mars colonists accept newcomers, especially if living conditions are hard? After which period of time and at what stage of the colony development could they claim the land, or Mars in its entirety, as their property? In short, at which point in time would they come to consider themselves as the real Martians?

3.3. Social Isolation and no Privacy—Rolled Into One

Considering the aforementioned moral and ethical challenges that would need to be reconciled before we venture to Mars, it is evident that the definition of value of human life, choice, and privacy may take quite a different meaning on Mars to that on Earth. From this, one can conclude that the moral and ethical belief system of Martian society would be different to that of their Earthly counterparts, yet these individuals will still be subject to laws of the nation of their citizenship, at least at early stages of colonization. 48 Furthermore, the role of these early settlers is to explore their environment and its effects on human body and social structure. It is likely that these individuals will be subject to ongoing monitoring and surveillance, which can have serious detrimental effects on their mental and physical health. These can exacerbate mental health consequences of physical confinement and social isolation, causing excessive suspiciousness, abrasiveness, stress, depression, and fatigue. 52

In his “Those sent to live and die on the red planet face untold risk of mental illness,” Chambers explores a scenario of what might happen when the psychological pressure of isolation and a complete lack of privacy tip the colonists over the edge of mental breakdown, prompting them to temporarily or even permanently sever these surveillance channels. 56 There is little published research on the extent of extreme psychological burden Mars colonists would be subjected to as part of, e.g., Mars One mission. Yet understanding these would be necessary to inform the selection of prospective participants. For example, resilience, adaptability, curiosity, creativity, and ability to place trust in others were listed as key traits for applicants to Mars One program, yet it is not clear how these will be measured and evaluated, and which traits will be deemed as not appropriate for the mission. Furthermore, it is not evident whether these traits are considered critical for minimizing the likelihood of one developing a mental illness because of prolonged social isolation or whether they are predictors of better emotional stability. Regardless of their attitude, there is little doubt that some of the selected individuals will develop mental illness, since even the most experienced members of space crew develop symptoms of anxiety, depression and apathy after extended period of time in space. This is despite decades of training, and a clear understanding that they will return to Earth upon completion of the mission.

According to an expert in psychology of space exploration and a Principal Investigator on several NASA‐funded and ESA‐sponsored international psychological research projects Kanas, upon departing Earth on their one way journey to Mars, the crew are likely to experience extreme homesickness, boredom, and loneliness ( Figure 3 ), which can lead to anything from dysphoria to psychosis and suicidal thinking. Upon reaching the surface of Mars, the colonists will swap their small spacecraft for an equally restricted base environment (≈50 m 2 per person) in which they would spend the vast majority of their time. 57 This is because Martian atmosphere is unbreathable for a human, with ≈96% CO 2 and <≈1% of O 2 , as opposed to <≈1% CO 2 and 21% of O 2 on Earth. The surface temperature on the Red Planet averages −55 °C (218 K), reaching a peak of ≈20 °C at the equator, and a low of ≈−153 °C at the poles. There is evidence that the enjoyment of natural outdoor environment and diverse sensory experiences reduces stress and improves mental health. 58

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Social isolation on Mars would be a great source of stress to the colonists. While Earth is in close proximity to the International Space Station (ISS), it becomes a remote planet when seen from the surface of the Moon and is desperately lost in space when observed from the surface of Mars. Earth photos credit: NASA/Jet propulsion Lab.

“Worse still, imagine a mission that has no Third Quarter. Or no quarters at all! Step forward Mars One. During such a mission, our contestants will be without any of the psychological buffers that every crew has had since Gagarin. No real time interaction with family. No instant access to mission control. No option of returning home” —writes Erik Seedhouse. 59

3.4. Advocacy for Mars—Is It Ethical at All to Colonize It?

One of the strongest arguments in favor of Mars colonization is the survival of humankind in the case of a global event that would significantly compromise or even destroy modern civilization, e.g., a global catastrophe that would make Earth no longer habitable for our species. Having a distant outpost on Mars would allow us to escape the consequences of such an event, and persist as a species. Yet our history tells us that colonists, no matter how responsible, would inevitable affect the environment they colonize. Although our chances of discovering intelligent life in space are quite low, 60 there remains a possibility of discovery of abiogenesis on Mars. Such a discovery would have tremendous scientific and philosophical significance, providing a second, potentially novel example of biochemistry and evolutionary history, and providing evidence for the phenomenon of life being spread across the universe. And most importantly, as an astrobiologist McKay points out, this will be an ultimate proof that extra‐terrestrial life in higher forms is possible. 61

However, what if the native life, no matter how primitive, is incompatible with out notion of what Mars should become in order to accommodate human life. While the environment of Mars is certainly harsh, it may still support extremophiles. Indeed, on Earth there are a number of examples of microorganisms that can withstand extreme temperatures, e.g., Pyrococcus furiosus and Pyrolobus fumarii , pH, e.g., Natronobacterium and Clostridium paradoxum , pressures, e.g., Pyrococcus sp., and radiation conditions, e.g., Thermococcus gammatolerans . If native life is discovered, should it be preserved and protected? Would it even be possible to discover and recognize these most probably microscopic organisms before changing their environment? Currently, to reduce the possibility of contaminating other worlds with microorganisms from Earth, efforts are made to ensure that both the robotic and human exploration of extra‐terrestrial environments is biologically reversible. It should therefore be possible to reverse any possible contamination of Mars if signs of abiogenesis are detected.

However, should we in fact protect this life? On Earth, microbial decontamination is widespread and in fact critical to food safety, healthcare, and in many instances our survival. At which point our own need for survival would give us permission to threaten theirs? 62 If life on Mars is discovered, it may be possible to consider other celestial bodies, e.g., the moons or sufficiently large asteroids, yet at present point in time, Mars appears to be the humanity's best option. 63

Even in the absence of native life forms, there is an obligation for the colonists to attempt to preserve where possible the unspoiled alien environment, to ensure our sustained survival on the Red Planet. Yet, it is unclear how these ideas of preservation of native environment would balance those of terraforming of Mars through global engineering to make its surface and climate hospitable to humans. If attainable, the latter would make colonization of Mars safer and more sustainable. 64 Clearly, it would not be possible to transport all the raw materials required for sustained growth and operation of a colony from Earth. Thus, these would have to be extracted from Martian environment, inevitably changing it.

“Do we deserve to become multi‐planetary? Let us become productive participants in the glorious dance of life. If we can dream of the insurmountable task of becoming multi‐planetary, then surely we can fathom expending the energy, resources and willpower that come with making mindful purchase and waste decisions. If we can succeed in preserving our current planet and its ecosystems, we save human consciousness and the integrity of our values. As Elon Musk describes his desire to keep the “light of consciousness” alive, I press that we also ensure it's brightly illuminated and worthy of traversing this magnificent universe,” writes Shivika Sinha. 65

Apart from moral aspects surrounding the protection of possible life on Mars, there are potential legal issues directly related to preservation of Martian environment. Indeed the Outer Space Treaty does not directly prohibit colonization of Mars, but it explicitly states that “States Parties to the Treaty… pursue studies of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, and conduct exploration of them so as to avoid their harmful contamination and also adverse changes in the environment of the Earth resulting from the introduction of extra‐terrestrial matter and, where necessary, shall adopt appropriate measures for this purpose” (Outer Space Treaty, Article IX 29 ). Yet, one can hardly imagine Mars colonization to proceed without any significant effect on the planet, let alone Mars terraforming, a process that assumes a significant and irreversible transformation of the environment. In this context, the Outer Space Treaty prescribes international consultations to take place before proceeding with such a project. Yet, what would be considered a harmful effect? It is definitely a gray area with considerable room for interpretation. Moreover, The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) has also issued the Planetary Protection Policy, designed to regulate biological and other types of contaminations of celestial bodies stemming from human space exploration efforts. 66

4. Consideration of Resources

Finally, let us consider the financial and resource aspects of Mars colonization projects and Mars exploration in general. Could it be a lucrative venture, or will Martian colony become a “groundnut scheme” of our generation?

In recent years, the idea of sustainable space economy where nations and private enterprises may derive financial benefits from extraction and utilization of extra‐terrestrial material and energy resources has gained notable attention. The proposed activities range from mining asteroids and the Moon to space tourism and development of large‐scale on‐orbit platforms that could offer a range of technical capabilities. Development of scientific research stations on the surface of large asteroids, the Moon and Mars are also considered. 67

These are very ambitious yet tremendously costly projects that are highly risky from an investment point of view. What is the current financing model for Mars One project? The realization of Mars One mission to bring humans to Mars is managed by the not‐for‐profit Mars One Foundation, which relies on established aerospace suppliers to develop and assemble its aerospace hardware systems. At present, the cost of delivering a crew of four colonists to the surface of Mars is estimated at about US$ 12 billion with the cumulative cost of about US$ 100 billion, 5 however, their business case would accommodate twice that budget. Although Mars One is in part financed through money from donors across 100 countries and their numbers are growing, the donated money is not sufficient to fully finance the operation. As such, the non‐for‐profit arm of the business works closely with the for‐profit Mars One Ventures, the focus of which is to derive and maximize revenue from activities associated with the mission. These include sales of merchandise, brand partnerships, speaking engagements, and, once the mission is closer to the first human launch to Mars, broadcasting rights, Intellectual Property rights, entertainment content, and events. A portion of the proceeds from these revenue streams (as 5% of gross turnover) feed into the mission. 68

It is evident that at present any potential revenue derived from the mission centers on selling the unique historic experience of sending humans to Mars, rather than from discovery and extraction of resources. There have been speculations by Mars colonization enthusiasts, such as Walker and Zubrin that it may be possible for Mars colony to become profitable by exploiting vast domestic resources of deuterium, which can be used as fuel for fusion reactors. 69 Yet others, including Musk, argue that it is unlikely that Mars would offer anything material that would be financially viable to export to Earth. 70

So, what might be the major benefit of Mars exploration? Should we not start by fixing our own planet and learning from this experience before attempting to conquer another outpost? Stratford tackles this notion from a different angle, and proposes to consider Mars colonization as a stimulus that is desperately needed by our contemporary society to move forward and once again regain our ability to tackle pressing problems head on:

“We need an inspired generation to take fast action on so many fronts, but so far, our generation is not inspired. We have instead grown cynical and soft. Sending humans to Mars is the wildcard our world needs to change us from a stagnating, inward‐looking society into a problem solving, frontier‐looking society. It can be done now, and humans can be on Mars within the next ten to fifteen years. We just have to make that decision to go. If we can do this with Mars, this will be the first step forward for our society becoming a “can do” world. Let's take that step” —writes Frank Stratford . 71

5. Quo Vadis, the Only Civilization We Know?

Even among space enthusiasts, there is a rich diversity of opinions regarding “if,” “how” and “when” we should proceed with our space exploration and colonization ambitions. Unless we face a major cataclysm that would immediately threaten our existence on Earth, it is unlikely that a consensus on whether we need a Martian outpost would be reached any time soon. As it stands now, Mars One and similar projects are likely to continue, evolving and morphing as we learn more about the worlds beyond our own. As we gain new technological capabilities and grow our presence in the near‐Earth space, with both areas showing no sign of slowing down, we may be faced with moral and ethical challenges of sending humans to Mars far sooner than anticipated.

At present, it is challenging to comprehensively outline all related questions, let alone offer feasible solutions to these formidable challenges. The aim of this brief Essay is to introduce the interested reader to a vast range of arguments pro and contra Mars colonization, and many often contradictory and antilogous drivers for this project. This is not surprising for such a global challenge, and there is little doubt more questions will emerge, from shorter‐term “Would the colonists be representative of the global human population?” and “Who will finally decide who gets to go?” to longer reaching question around legal matters, the growth of Mars population and development of the social life on Mars.

Even the selection of the most proper “model of civilization” is still an open question. Indeed, there is no monolithic human civilization on Earth to mirror. Furthermore, establishment of societies of altruistic technologically savvy individuals may be far more challenging that it is anticipated. Indeed, with no relevant experience in building similar isolated, artificially built societies, the experience of polar investigators and long‐term space station expeditions, possibly complemented with the long‐term Moon station experience, will have to be used as the best available approximation for the self‐establishing, self‐organizing Mars colonies.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported in part by OSTIn‐SRP/EDB, the National Research Foundation (Singapore), Academic Research Fund AcRF Tier 1 RP 6/16 (Singapore), and the George Washington Institute for Nanotechnology (USA). I.L. acknowledges the support from the School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology.

Levchenko I., Xu S., Mazouffre S., Keidar M., Bazaka K., Global Challenges 2019, 3 , 1800062 10.1002/gch2.201800062 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Contributor Information

Igor Levchenko, Email: [email protected] , Email: [email protected] .

Kateryna Bazaka, Email: [email protected] .

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Mars samples project looms large in final spending talks

by Aidan Quigley, CQ-Roll Call

mars

A complex project aimed at retrieving rock and dirt samples from Mars has long been a top priority for NASA, with proponents arguing the mission could answer the age-old question of whether life once existed on the red planet.

The Perseverance rover, manufactured by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif., is collecting the samples. But lawmakers are fighting over whether getting them back to Earth for study is viable in a tight budget environment.

The battle lines are regional, not partisan: California lawmakers backing work being done on the Mars Sample Return program at the Pasadena complex pitted against Maryland and Virginia supporters of the agency's sprawling Goddard Space Flight Center, among others.

The Mars mission is also facing serious questions about its viability following an internal NASA review that determined the program would take longer, and cost far more, than originally forecast.

The GOP-controlled House has taken the Biden administration's side, proposing full funding for the Mars program, while the Democratic-controlled Senate has sought to divert money to other projects.

"The mission is way over budget," Senate Commerce-Justice-Science Appropriations Chair Jeanne Shaheen, D-N.H., said. "It's not at all clear what kind of science that will produce for us, so I think given the constraints within the budget, we have to look at putting the money where it's going to have the most impact."

Not taking any chances, NASA is preparing for the worst. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory announced large-scale layoffs last week—8 percent of its workforce. The move follows NASA Administrator Bill Nelson's direction that the agency should prepare for a $300 million fiscal 2024 Mars project appropriation, as proposed in the Senate's Commerce-Justice-Science spending bill.

The Mars program's future is among the big decisions facing appropriators as they negotiate the final Commerce-Justice-Science bill. That measure has a March 8 deadline in the current stopgap law, part of roughly four-fifths of total fiscal 2024 discretionary funding due on that date.

The Senate wants to slash the account by 63 percent, buttressed by NASA's review, which found the program would cost at least $3 billion more than expected. Moreover, the report accompanying the Senate bill directs NASA—if the agency reports that it can't find a way to live within an earlier $5.3 billion projection—to "either provide options to de-scope or rework MSR or face mission cancellation."

By contrast, House appropriators included the full $949.3 million Mars program amount President Joe Biden requested in their Commerce-Justice-Science bill.

"It'll be the most exciting series of samples that we will have in our possession when it does come back," said Rep. Judy Chu, D-Calif, whose district includes the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the California Institute of Technology, which operates the facility. "But all of this is being undermined by cuts that will stop all of the tremendous progress we have made."

The mission

Congress to-date has appropriated $1.74 billion for the Mars program, which the most recent once-every-decade survey of planetary scientists called NASA's highest robotic exploration priority.

But the effort to retrieve the samples is challenging, to put it mildly. It involves the Perseverance rover delivering the materials to a garage-sized, bug-shaped "sample retrieval lander" equipped with a rocket to blast the materials back into orbit. The samples would be collected by an orbiting spacecraft and brought back to Earth, with a target re-entry date in 2033—if everything goes right.

The program is "one of the most complex missions ever attempted by NASA, requiring the first ever launch from another planet and rendezvous with a spacecraft in orbit around another planet," NASA spokesman Dewayne Washington said in a statement.

NASA's independent review board released its report in September, finding that the program will ultimately cost between $8 billion and $11 billion with a "near zero probability" of meeting interim launch deadlines.

"As a result, there is currently no credible … schedule, cost and technical baseline that can be accomplished with the likely available funding," the board said.

The agency is now "evaluating future options for the program" due to the current budget environment, Washington said. An internal assessment is underway, with recommendations due at the end of March.

Regional fights

The Mars program and NASA in general already faced budget pressures.

Due to spending caps in last year's debt limit suspension law, the fiscal 2024 Commerce-Justice-Science bill overall is nearly certain to face cuts from the previous year's version. Both chambers' bills came in under the fiscal 2023 enacted level of $84.2 billion, with the Senate bill totaling $83.5 billion and the House including $81.5 billion.

The White House sought a big boost for NASA, to $27.2 billion. But the agency would receive just $25.4 billion in the House bill, essentially flat from fiscal 2023. The Senate, seeking to protect other funding priorities, would trim NASA further, to $25 billion.

With less money to go around, lawmakers are pushing to steer available dollars to their states. Even before NASA released its review board's findings, Senate appropriators charged in the report accompanying their fiscal 2024 bill that the agency is delaying work on other important projects due to the financial and staffing demands of the Mars mission.

Maryland and Virginia lawmakers are backing the Senate's lower figure because they want more money freed up for projects benefiting Greenbelt, Md.-based Goddard, which manages the Wallops Flight Facility on Virginia's Eastern Shore.

Sen. Chris Van Hollen, D-Md., a Commerce-Justice-Science subcommittee member, signed a Jan. 8 letter from Maryland and Virginia lawmakers to committee leaders urging them to stick with the Senate's proposed cut.

Shaheen isn't an impartial observer. The University of New Hampshire's Space Science Center, a major NASA research institution, is involved in the agency's Artemis program to return astronauts to the moon as well as its study of heliophysics, or how the sun affects its surroundings.

After the death of Democratic Sen. Dianne Feinstein in September, California no longer has a senator on the Appropriations panel. But the powerful California delegation is trying to flex its muscles. The state's senators and most of its House delegation sent a Feb. 1 letter to Office of Management and Budget Director Shalanda Young expressing concern over the administration's decision to "prematurely move forward with budget cuts" to the Mars program.

Letter signers run the gamut from GOP lawmakers in tough races like Mike Garcia and Ken Calvert, the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee chairman, to three Democratic candidates vying to take Feinstein's former seat: Barbara Lee, Katie Porter and Adam B. Schiff.

Garcia, a Commerce-Justice-Science Appropriations Subcommittee member, said NASA's pre-emptive cuts are circumventing lawmakers' wishes.

"NASA has sort of unilaterally decided to assume the worst-case scenario with the Senate number, and has also … decided to effectively reprogram budgets and effectively cut MSR to the point where it's not executable in the near term," Garcia said.

Senate preferences

Initially, Senate appropriators in their Commerce-Justice-Science bill directed NASA to scrap the program if it finds it won't be able to hit the $5.3 billion target. At the panel's July markup, a little more than two months before she died, Feinstein amended the initial draft committee report to give NASA the option to downsize or rework the program instead of simply canceling it outright.

If NASA does choose to kill the Mars mission, Senate appropriators would direct most of the funding to the agency's top overall priority, the Artemis mission.

The measure would divert $235 million of the canceled Mars appropriation—if it comes to that—to Artemis, enough to meet the White House's budget request. Shaheen said Artemis, which could put the first woman on the moon, is "at the top" of Senate appropriators' list of NASA priorities.

Of the remaining Mars funds, $30 million each would go to the Dragonfly mission to study Saturn's moon Titan, and to what's known as the Geospace Constellation Dynamics mission. The latter, a study of Earth's upper atmosphere, would be put on hiatus under Biden's budget, with funding redirected to the Mars program.

The Senate bill would already fully fund the administration's Dragonfly request. And it would add $35 million on top of the request to keep the atmospheric study going, part of a broader push to support NASA's Heliophysics budget, which would receive more than the White House request.

Both programs were cited in the Maryland and Virginia delegations' letter, which sought more for Dragonfly than the Senate bill would provide. Goddard is a partner in the Saturn mission along with Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Md., and NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton, Va.

The Virginia and Maryland lawmakers, while agreeing with the Senate's proposed Mars cut, oppose any diversion of funding to Artemis, however, arguing the money should be reallocated within NASA's science programs.

California lawmakers argued in their letter to Young that NASA should develop a reworked Mars program that is simpler and cheaper instead of scrapping it.

Chu said she thinks the program could continue with $650 million in the current fiscal year and again next year, in line with what was appropriated two years ago. A compromise along those lines, she said, would allow the program "to go forth, perhaps with less money, but would enable this project to be able to survive."

Meanwhile, NASA needs to start briefing Congress on its plans to restructure the program, Garcia said, as appropriators prepare to cut deals on fiscal 2024 spending.

"The Senate, their concerns aren't invalid," he said. "But the mission priority is still there, so when things get harder, or things change, you don't just give up on it."

2024 CQ-Roll Call, Inc. Distributed by Tribune Content Agency, LLC.

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  • Passing Stars Altered Orbital Changes in Earth, Other Planets

February 14, 2024

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mars research report

Illustration of the uncertainty of Earth's orbit 56 million years ago due to a potential past passage of the Sun-like star HD7977 2.8 million years ago. Each point's distance from the center corresponds to the degree of ellipticity of Earth's orbit, and the angle corresponds to the direction pointing to Earth's perihelion, or closest approach distance to the Sun. 100 different simulations (each with a unique color) are sampled every 1,000 years for 600,000 years to construct this figure. Every simulation is consistent with the modern Solar System's conditions, and the differences in orbital predictions are primarily due to orbital chaos and the past encounter with HD 7977. Credit: N. Kaib/PSI.

Feb. 14, 2024, Tucson, Ariz. – Stars that pass by our Solar System have altered the long-term orbital evolution of planets, including Earth, and by extension modified our climate.

“Perturbations – a minor deviation in the course of a celestial body, caused by the gravitational attraction of a neighboring body – from passing stars alter the long-term orbital evolution of the Sun’s planets, including Earth,” said Nathan A. Kaib, Senior Scientist at the Planetary Science Institute and lead author of “ Passing Stars as an Important Driver of Paleoclimate and the Solar System’s Orbital Evolution ” that appears in Astrophysical Journal Letters. Sean Raymond at the Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Bordeaux also contributed to this work.

“One reason this is important is because the geologic record shows that changes in the Earth’s orbital eccentricity accompany fluctuations in the Earth’s climate. If we want to best search for the causes of ancient climate anomalies, it is important to have an idea of what Earth’s orbit looked like during those episodes,” Kaib said.

“One example of such an episode is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago, where the Earth’s temperature rose 5-8 degrees centigrade. It has already been proposed that Earth’s orbital eccentricity was notably high during this event, but our results show that passing stars make detailed predictions of Earth’s past orbital evolution at this time highly uncertain, and a broader spectrum of orbital behavior is possible than previously thought.”

Simulations (run backwards) are used to predict the past orbital evolution of the Earth and the Sun’s other planets. Analogous to weather forecasting, this technique gets less accurate as you extend it to longer times because of the exponential growth of uncertainties. Previously, the effects of stars passing near the Sun were not considered in these “backwards forecasts.”

As the Sun and other stars orbit the center of the Milky Way, they inevitably can pass near one another, sometimes within tens of thousands of au, 1 au being the distance from the Earth to the Sun. These events are called stellar encounters. For instance, a star passes within 50,000 au of the Sun every 1 million years on average, and a star passes within 10,000 au of the Sun every 20 million years on average. This study’s simulations include these types of events, whereas most prior similar simulations do not.

One major reason the Earth’s orbital eccentricity fluctuates over time is because it receives regular perturbations from the giant planets of our Solar System, (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune). As stars pass near our Solar System, they perturb the giant planet’s orbits, which consequently then alters the orbital trajectory of the Earth. Thus, the giant planets serve as a link between the Earth and passing stars.

Kaib said that when simulations include stellar passages, we find that orbital uncertainties grow even faster, and the time horizon beyond which these backwards simulations’ predictions become unreliable is more recent than thought. This means two things: There are past epochs in Earth’s history where our confidence in what Earth’s orbit looked like (for example, its eccentricity, or degree of circularity) has been too high, and the real orbital state is not known, and the effects of passing stars make regimes of orbital evolution (extended periods of particularly high or low eccentricity) possible that were not predicted by past models.

“Given these results, we have also identified one known recent stellar passage, the Sun-like star HD 7977 which occurred 2.8 million years ago, that is potentially powerful enough to alter simulations’ predictions of what Earth’s orbit was like beyond approximately 50 million years ago,” Kaib said.

The current observational uncertainty of HD 7977’s closest encounter distance is large, however, ranging from 4,000 au to 31,000 au. “For larger encounter distances, HD 7977 would not have a significant impact on Earth’s encounter distance. Near the smaller end of the range, however, it would likely alter our predictions of Earth’s past orbit, ” Kaib said.

Visit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FlmoWuX-H3s&ab_channel=NathanKaib to see a video on how Star HD 7977 can alter Earth’s orbit.

Kaib’s work was funded by a grant to PSI from NSF CAREER Award 2405121.

MEDIA CONTACT: Alan Fischer Public Information Officer 520-382-0411 [email protected]

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The Planetary Science Institute is a private, nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation dedicated to Solar System exploration. It is headquartered in Tucson, Arizona, where it was founded in 1972.

PSI scientists are involved in numerous NASA and international missions, the study of Mars and other planets, the Moon, asteroids, comets, interplanetary dust, impact physics, the origin of the Solar System, extra-solar planet formation, dynamics, the rise of life, and other areas of research. They conduct fieldwork on all continents around the world. They also are actively involved in science education and public outreach through school programs, children’s books, popular science books and art.

PSI scientists are based in 34 states and the District of Columbia.

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Image of HD 7977, a Sun-like star predicted to have passed near the Solar System 2.8 million years ago. The blue cross marks the star. Credit: Digitized Sky Survey.

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  • Published: 12 July 2023

Diverse organic-mineral associations in Jezero crater, Mars

  • Sunanda Sharma   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8822-7960 1   na1 ,
  • Ryan D. Roppel 2   na1 ,
  • Ashley E. Murphy 3 ,
  • Luther W. Beegle   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4944-4353 4 ,
  • Rohit Bhartia   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1434-7481 5 ,
  • Andrew Steele   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9643-2841 6 ,
  • Joseph Razzell Hollis 7 ,
  • Sandra Siljeström 8 ,
  • Francis M. McCubbin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2101-4431 9 ,
  • Sanford A. Asher 2 ,
  • William J. Abbey 1 ,
  • Abigail C. Allwood 1 ,
  • Eve L. Berger 9 , 10 , 11 ,
  • Benjamin L. Bleefeld 12 ,
  • Aaron S. Burton 9 ,
  • Sergei V. Bykov   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6161-0027 2 ,
  • Emily L. Cardarelli 1 ,
  • Pamela G. Conrad 6 ,
  • Andrea Corpolongo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8623-358X 13 ,
  • Andrew D. Czaja   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2450-0734 13 ,
  • Lauren P. DeFlores 1 ,
  • Kenneth Edgett 12 ,
  • Kenneth A. Farley 14 ,
  • Teresa Fornaro   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7705-9658 15 ,
  • Allison C. Fox   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5952-4170 9 , 10 , 11 ,
  • Marc D. Fries 9 ,
  • David Harker 12 ,
  • Keyron Hickman-Lewis 7 ,
  • Joshua Huggett 12 ,
  • Samara Imbeah   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2921-1840 12 ,
  • Ryan S. Jakubek 9 , 11 ,
  • Linda C. Kah   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7172-2033 16 ,
  • Carina Lee 9 , 10 , 11 ,
  • Yang Liu 1 ,
  • Angela Magee 12 ,
  • Michelle Minitti 17 ,
  • Kelsey R. Moore 14 ,
  • Alyssa Pascuzzo 12 ,
  • Carolina Rodriguez Sanchez-Vahamonde   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0390-5054 12 ,
  • Eva L. Scheller 18 ,
  • Svetlana Shkolyar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9641-1071 19 , 20 , 21 ,
  • Kathryn M. Stack 1 ,
  • Kim Steadman 1 ,
  • Michael Tuite 1 ,
  • Kyle Uckert   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0859-5526 1 ,
  • Alyssa Werynski 12 ,
  • Roger C. Wiens   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3409-7344 22 ,
  • Amy J. Williams   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6299-0845 23 ,
  • Katherine Winchell 24 ,
  • Megan R. Kennedy   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5076-6395 12 &
  • Anastasia Yanchilina 25  

Nature volume  619 ,  pages 724–732 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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  • Astrobiology
  • Fluorescence spectroscopy
  • Geochemistry
  • Raman spectroscopy

The presence and distribution of preserved organic matter on the surface of Mars can provide key information about the Martian carbon cycle and the potential of the planet to host life throughout its history. Several types of organic molecules have been previously detected in Martian meteorites 1 and at Gale crater, Mars 2 , 3 , 4 . Evaluating the diversity and detectability of organic matter elsewhere on Mars is important for understanding the extent and diversity of Martian surface processes and the potential availability of carbon sources 1 , 5 , 6 . Here we report the detection of Raman and fluorescence spectra consistent with several species of aromatic organic molecules in the Máaz and Séítah formations within the Crater Floor sequences of Jezero crater, Mars. We report specific fluorescence-mineral associations consistent with many classes of organic molecules occurring in different spatial patterns within these compositionally distinct formations, potentially indicating different fates of carbon across environments. Our findings suggest there may be a diversity of aromatic molecules prevalent on the Martian surface, and these materials persist despite exposure to surface conditions. These potential organic molecules are largely found within minerals linked to aqueous processes, indicating that these processes may have had a key role in organic synthesis, transport or preservation.

There are multiple origin hypotheses for the presence of organic matter on Mars from meteorite and mission studies. These include in situ formation through water–rock interactions 5 or electrochemical reduction of CO 2 (ref. 6 ), or deposition from exogenous sources such as interplanetary dust and meteoritic infall 1 , although a biotic origin has not been excluded. Understanding the fine-scale spatial association between minerals, textures and organic compounds has been crucial in explaining the potential pools of organic carbon on Mars. The Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC) instrument is a tool that enables this on the Martian surface.

The Perseverance rover was designed for in situ science with the ability to collect a suite of samples for eventual return to Earth 7 . The rover’s landing site within Jezero crater combines a high potential for past habitability as the site of an ancient lake basin 8 with diverse minerals, including carbonates, clays and sulfates 9 that may preserve organic materials and potential biosignatures 10 . The Jezero crater floor includes three formations (fm) 11 ; two of these, Máaz and Séítah, were explored as part of the mission’s first campaign. Máaz, previously mapped as the crater floor fractured rough unit, is highly cratered and broadly mafic in composition; rover observations to date indicate a composition rich in pyroxene and plagioclase 12 . Séítah, previously mapped as the crater floor fractured 1 unit, is underlying and therefore presumed older than Máaz and contains rocks that represent an ultramafic olivine-bearing cumulate 13 . SHERLOC has observed three natural (as found) rock surfaces in Máaz and seven freshly abraded surfaces across Máaz and Séítah (Fig. 1 and Extended Data Figs. 1 and 2 ). Abrasion consists of removing the outer layer of the rock, which is weathered and covered by Martian dust, using an abrading bit on the drill to create a 45 mm diameter cylindrical hole of 8–10 mm deep. The gaseous dust removal tool then removes residual fines with nitrogen gas 14 to reveal a flat, dust-free surface for analysis. Four abrasion targets are associated with rock cores that may be returned to Earth during the Mars Sample Return campaign.

figure 1

a , High Resolution Imaging ScienceExperiment (HiRISE) image of the region studied with the rover’s traverse marked in white, the boundary between the Séítah and Máaz fm delineated by the light blue line, and each rock target labelled. Scale bar, 100 m. b , Average number of fluorescence detections (out of 1,296 points) from survey scans for each target interrogated by SHERLOC, arranged in order of observation. *The acquisition conditions were different for dust-covered natural targets as compared to relatively dust-free abraded targets, possibly resulting in reduced detections. c , WATSON images of natural (red box) and abraded targets (Máaz is the blue box, Séítah is the green box) analysed in this study, with SHERLOC survey scan footprints outlined in white. Two survey scans were performed on Guillaumes, Dourbes and Quartier. Sol 141 imaging on Foux had an incomplete overlap of WATSON imaging and SHERLOC spectroscopy mapping. Scale bars, 5 mm.

The SHERLOC instrument is a deep ultraviolet (DUV) Raman and fluorescence spectrometer designed to map the distribution of organic molecules and minerals on rock surfaces at a resolution of 100 μm (ref. 15 ). This approach enables spectral separation of weak Raman scattering from stronger fluorescence emission, which can have cross-sections that are 10 5 –10 8 times larger than Raman 15 , allowing for measurement of both signals simultaneously. SHERLOC can detect Raman scattering from roughly 700 to 4,000 cm −1 and fluorescence photons from 253 to 355 nm (see Methods for more detailed descriptions). SHERLOC includes a autofocus context imager (ACI) coboresighted with the spectrometer to collect high spatial resolution (roughly 10.1 μm per pixel) grayscale images to place spectral maps within the context of texture and grain sizes. The wide-angle topographic sensor for operations and engineering (WATSON) imager provides colour imaging and broader spatial context. Combined, these enable spatial associations between organics and minerals to assess formation, deposition and preservation mechanisms. SHERLOC has previously observed fluorescence signatures consistent with small aromatic compounds in three targets across the crater floor 16 that align with previous findings on Mars and within Martian meteorites.

Fluorescence signals in the crater floor

Fluorescence signals were detected on all ten targets observed by SHERLOC in the Jezero crater floor. They can be summarized by four main feature groups (Fig. 2 ). Group 1 is a doublet at roughly 303 and 325 nm; group 2 is a single broad band at roughly 335–350 nm; group 3 is a single broad band between roughly 270 and 295 nm and group 4 is a pair of bands centred at roughly 290 and 330 nm. The scan parameters are given in Extended Data Table 1 . A two-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov test was done on the observed fluorescence maxima for each group to determine whether they were statistically distinct from one another and found that groups 1–3 had null probabilities (likelihood that two groups are samples of the same distribution) of less than 10 −40 . Group 4 was too small for a statistical assessment, but is considered qualitatively different from the others.

figure 2

a , Histograms of the λ max (measured from raw data) of four fluorescence features that were observed in survey scans in natural targets in Máaz (top, n = 84), abraded targets in Séítah (bottom, n = 82) and abraded targets in Máaz (middle, n = 1070). Bins of 1 nm show variation in band centres, y axes scaled to each dataset. b , Filtered mean spectra from each target representing each fluorescence feature category demonstrate characteristic band positions, normalized relative intensities and colocated features between targets. The range of the SHERLOC CCD is 250–354 nm. The rise in baseline below 270 nm is a boundary artefact introduced by the filter and not representative of the sample data 45 .

The four fluorescence feature categories observed in the ten targets presented here are all consistent with emission in the spectral range shown by single ring aromatics and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 15 , 17 (Extended Data Table 2 and Extended Data Fig. 3 ). The number of rings in aromatic compounds can be estimated following the reported trend of emission spectra under DUV excitation 18 , in which increasing emission wavelength is positively correlated with number of aromatic rings; this was used to define the four fluorescence feature categories used in this study (Extended Data Table 3 ). However, the potential for non-organic luminescence 19 must also be considered for each group and is discussed herein.

Group 1: doublet at roughly 303 and 325 nm

Two targets, Bellegarde and Quartier, showed the distinctive group 1 fluorescence feature (Fig. 3 ). These peaks appear together with constant relative positions and intensities, probably indicating a single emitter. The Bellegarde target, located on the Rochette rock in the Máaz fm, yielded detections on white crystals that are probably hydrated Ca-sulfate based on SHERLOC and PIXL observations 16 ; the fluorescence doublet feature was associated with these areas (Fig. 3a,c ). The Quartier target, located on the Issole rock in the Séítah fm, similarly contained white crystals that showed Raman peaks at 1,010–1,020 cm −1 and a broad band at roughly 3,500 cm −1 whose intensities were positively correlated (Fig. 3b,d ). Sometimes, minor peaks at roughly 1,140 and at 1,215–1,225 cm −1 were also present. These peaks are consistent with a mix of sulfates 20 , potentially including both Ca- and Mg-sulfate at different hydration states. PIXL established that two different sulfate minerals were present, namely Mg-rich sulfate (66 wt% SO 3 , 27 wt% MgO, 3 wt% CaO, 4 wt% FeO) and CaMg sulfate (61 wt% SO 3 , 18 wt% MgO, 19 wt% CaO, 2 wt% FeO). A Raman peak at roughly 1,649 cm −1 was detected at one point within the hydrated sulfate crystal where doublet fluorescence was also present. This peak was accompanied by a small peak at roughly 1,050 cm −1 and a broader feature that seemed to contain several peaks between 1,330 and 1,410 cm −1 (Fig. 3d ). Eleven sols later, several high-resolution scans subsequently performed on the same area of Quartier showed a nearly identical roughly 1,649 cm −1 peak at three points within hydrated sulfate crystals. In each case, the distinctive doublet fluorescence was detected as well as a broader feature at 1,330–1,410 cm −1 .

figure 3

a , Colourized ACI image of a region where a survey scan (36 × 36 points over 5 × 5 mm 2 ) was performed on the Bellegarde target from sol 186. Green rings (rough laser beam diameter) represent locations where the roughly 303 and 325 nm fluorescence doublet was detected. b , Colourized ACI image of a region where a detailed scan (10 × 10 points over 1 × 1 mm 2 ) was performed on the Quartier target from sol 304. Green rings represent locations where the roughly 303 and 325 nm fluorescence doublet was detected. Scale bars, 1 mm. c , Median fluorescence spectra (unfiltered) from the green points indicated in Bellegarde (red, n = 33) and Quartier (black, n = 26) normalized to 303 nm band and offset for clarity. d , Median Raman spectra of four points with highest fluorescence band intensities from Quartier scans on sols 293 and 304. Roughly 1,010 cm −1 sulfate band is off scale; inset shows roughly 1,649 cm −1 band with Voigt fit (FWHM 53.737, area 12,559, height 192.79). In the inset, the unfitted spectrum (red), fitted spectrum (blue) and baseline (green) are shown; y axis is intensity.

The group 1 fluorescence observations in Quartier (Séítah) are consistent with the presence of a one or two-ring aromatic organic molecule(s) within a hydrated sulfate crystal. It is also possible that the observed emission comes from Ce 3+ concentrated within the sulfate, given the close match in emission wavelengths in laboratory data. Three Raman peaks at 1,060, 1,330–1,410 and roughly 1,649 cm −1 are colocated with the three most intense doublet fluorescence and strong hydrated sulfate signals. They were detected even after 11 sols of surface exposure, although the hydration feature (OH stretch at roughly 3,300–3,500 cm −1 ) decreased in intensity, indicating a change in the hydration state after exposure to the Martian atmosphere. On the basis of the relative positions and intensities of these peaks, they represent at least two possibilities: vibrational modes of an organic molecule that include a preresonant C=C stretch 21 , or asymmetric stretching and bending modes from nitrate within the sample 22 . The possibility of organics occurring within sulfates is supported by evidence from studies of Martian meteorites 5 and in Gale crater 21 , which show that sulfates may have a key role in forming, preserving or transporting organic molecules in the Martian environment. The combination of Raman and fluorescence data reported here could constitute two lines of evidence that support the detection of organic molecules within hydrated sulfate crystals, which is the simplest explanation for these observations. If both Raman and fluorescence signals are inorganic in origin, nitrate and Ce 3+ in sulfate would need to be colocated.

Group 2: single band at roughly 335–350 nm

The most common fluorescence feature detected was a single broad (roughly 30–40 nm full-width at half-maximum (FWHM)) band centred at roughly 335–350 nm. Group 2 fluorescence was observed on all targets across both formations and showed the highest intensities among the four fluorescence feature categories (Fig. 2 ). The relative occurrence of this feature observed in survey scans of abraded targets was markedly higher in Máaz (189 ± 96 counts) versus Séítah (26 ± 6 counts). However, the average intensity of this feature was comparable between survey scans performed in the two formations (Máaz 342 ± 76 counts; Séítah 361 ± 80 counts). The measured intensity can vary on the basis of several factors, including the concentration of the emitter, the focus of the spectrometer and the presence of an absorbing material; therefore, large standard deviations are expected. Scans from all abraded targets show group 2 fluorescence detections that seem to be at or near grain boundaries in most cases (Extended Data Table 2 and Extended Data Fig. 1 ). In Máaz, the group 2 feature had an average band centre position of 344.1 ± 1.5 nm in survey scans and was observed to have band centres varying from roughly 338 to 349 nm, whereas in Séítah, the average band centre position was 343.1 ± 0.5 nm and the variance of the band centre had a narrower range, from roughly 340 to 345 nm (Fig. 2a ). In abraded targets in both formations, the group 2 feature was associated with a common set of minerals detected with Raman spectroscopy, including carbonate, phosphate, sulfate, silicate and occasionally, potential perchlorate (Fig. 5 and Extended Data Fig. 4 ) 16 , 20 . The key difference in mineral associations was that in three Máaz fm targets (Montpezat, Bellegarde and Alfalfa), this feature was also associated with possible detections of pyroxene. By contrast, in the Séítah fm, this feature was associated with a possible detection of olivine in at least one point on each target (Extended Data Table 2 ).

One point in the high dynamic range (HDR) scan on Montpezat showed a Raman peak at 1,597 cm −1 as well as weak fluorescence at roughly 340 nm (Fig. 4a,b ), and was colocated with a detection at roughly 1,080 cm −1 . The roughly 1,080 cm −1 signal shows a broad-shaped Raman band consistent with laboratory studies of carbonate and silicate minerals 19 . Raman spectroscopy cannot resolve silicate phases well because of the small degree of polarizability of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron 23 ; therefore, it is provisionally assigned here as simply silicate or carbonate. The roughly 1,597 cm −1 peak closely matched the known graphitic (G) band observed on a sample from the Martian meteorite Sayh al Uhaymir (SaU008) calibration target in position and shape (Fig. 4c,d and Extended Data Fig. 5 ). In the calibration target, the Raman peak at roughly 1,599 cm −1 is known to be from macromolecular carbon 15 , 24 ; thus, the 1,597 cm −1 peak is consistent with a carbon–carbon bond. This point on SaU008 similarly shows weak group 2 fluorescence at roughly 340 nm, although it seems to have lower intensity and longer emission wavelength than the point on Montpezat. Higher confidence in a specific Raman assignment would have been possible if the peak was detected at a greater signal-to-noise and seen at more than one point. Several nearby points showed possible peaks below the detection threshold.

figure 4

a , Raman spectrum from point 40 of an HDR scan on Montpezat (sol 349) with a Lorentzian fit (FWHM 49.873, area 8,069.1, height 103). b , Corresponding average fluorescence spectrum to a (lambda max roughly 338 nm). c , Median Raman spectrum (n = 100) from an HDR scan on the SaU008 meteorite calibration target (sol 181), which contains the known graphitic (G) band, with a Lorentzian fit (FWHM 61.784, area 11,646, height 120). d , Corresponding average fluorescence spectrum to c (lambda max roughly 338 nm). e , Average Raman spectrum of points with the highest group 2 fluorescence (n = 28) on Garde (sol 207–208) with a Lorentzian fit (FWHM 47, area 4,500, height 60.953). f , Corresponding average fluorescence spectrum to c (lambda max roughly 340 nm). In all graphs, the unfitted spectrum (red), fitted spectrum (blue) and baseline (green) are shown; the y axis is intensity.

The mean spectrum of points where the highest intensity group 2 features were detected on Garde (Séítah fm) yielded a Raman peak at roughly 1,403 cm −1 (Fig. 4e,f ). These points were correlated to Raman detections consistent with olivine (823 cm −1 ), phosphate (960 cm −1 ) and carbonate (1,086 cm −1 ). Another possible peak in the mean spectrum was visible at roughly 1,540 cm −1 , but was at the lower limit of detectable width (less than 3 pixels FWHM) so is unassigned. The roughly 1,403 cm −1 peak could be due to an organic compound, such as a C=O stretching vibration of an organic salt 25 . Organic salts are possible oxidation and radiolysis products of organic matter and have been indirectly detected on Mars previously 26 . Carbonyl groups and aromatic or olefinic carbon have been correlated with carbonate in a Martian meteorite 5 . Further work is continuing to rule out secondary modes of matrix minerals.

The group 2 fluorescence (roughly 335–350 nm) feature is consistent with a two-ring aromatic molecule, such as naphthalene. Alternatively, the emission spectra are also consistent with Ce 3+ in phosphates, on the basis of laboratory data 27 . Both aromatic organics 6 and Ce 3+ have been associated with phosphate minerals in Martian meteorites 28 , 29 . With the data collected from Perseverance and our laboratory analyses, we cannot rule out a contribution from both inorganic and organic sources. The aromatic compounds would probably exist with some degree of chemical substitution or in specific steric configurations with respect to surrounding minerals, that would result in blue- or red-shifting from the expected fluorescence wavelengths for benzene and naphthalene. Red-shifting of fluorescence due to the formation of carboxylic acids on or near the aromatic ring is highly probable as these compounds are exposed to high energy radiation in an oxidative environment 30 , 31 , and previous studies of refractory organic carbon in Martian meteorites have shown carboxyl functionality 5 , 6 . It is highly probable that the detected fluorescence features, if organic, represent mixes of organic moieties rather than single emitters, and their overlapping spectra could cause variability in the apparent position and the FWHM of observed bands. This would align with the colocated detections of many fluorescence features on the same points. If the fluorescence is inorganic, the emissions could also be varied as Ce 3+ luminescence is highly matrix dependent and affected by changes in mineralogy and mineral composition 19 .

Group 3: single band at roughly 270–295 nm

Fluorescence bands between roughly 270 and 295 nm (FWHM of roughly 20 nm) were observed at many points in survey scans of three abraded (Guillaumes, Bellegarde, Alfalfa) and one natural target (Foux) in Máaz, and at few or no points in all other scans (Extended Data Figs. 1 and 2 ). On the targets with a substantial number of detections, points where group 3 fluorescence was detected often appeared clustered together on brown-toned, possibly iron-stained material (Extended Data Figs. 2 and 5 ). In many cases, this feature was colocated with the group 2 feature and was comparatively weaker in intensity (Fig. 2 , and Extended Data Fig. 4 ). The average band centre position in natural targets (276.1 ± 0.8 nm) and abraded targets (276.1 ± 1.4 nm) in Máaz were similar. Given the few overall detections in Séítah, no quantitative comparison was possible. No clear mineral associations were detected with group 3 fluorescence in Máaz abraded targets, except Alfalfa. Here, fluorescence was associated with a broad Raman peak at roughly 1,040–1,080 cm −1 , assigned to possible silicate 2 , 19 , and peaks at roughly 1,085–1,100 cm −1 , assigned to carbonate 2 , 19 , at or near boundaries of black and grey grains. As with the group 2 feature, no clear textural associations were observed in natural targets, and no mineral signatures could be identified in the spectra. The group 3 (roughly 270–295 nm) feature is consistent with a single ring aromatic compound, such as benzene 16 ; possible non-organic sources, such as silica defects, are discussed in the Methods .

Group 4: roughly 290 and 330 nm features

The feature with bands centred at roughly 290 and 330 nm was observed on two targets, Guillaumes (Máaz) and Garde (Séítah). In both, it was observed on several points in intergranular spaces; this was particularly apparent on Garde as previously reported 16 . On Guillaumes, group 4 fluorescence was not clearly associated with specific minerals. On Garde, it was colocated with Raman peaks at roughly 1,087–1,096 cm −1 and a broad peak at roughly 1,080 cm −1 , assigned to carbonate and silicate, respectively 2 , 19 (Extended Data Fig. 6 ). The relative intensities of the two peaks were not constant between points, indicating that they could be from several emitters. It is also possible that it is not a distinct category but simply a combination of group 2 and 3 species. The spectra are consistent with a one or two-ringed aromatic compound(s), though the possible inorganic sources of groups 2 and 3 may also apply to group 4.

Relative abundance of organic compounds

The observed fluorescence response, if solely from organic molecules, can be used to provide a conservative estimate of concentration using a single ring aromatic (benzene) with a weak fluorescence cross-section and an assumed depth of penetration of 75 µm (refs. 16 , 32 ). This depth is a conservative estimate based on DUV transmission of more than 150 µm through Mars simulants 32 . Comparing the survey scans of the abraded surfaces, the localized concentrations are varied and range from 20 to 400 pg of organics where Alfalfa (Máaz) has some of the highest number of occurrences and localized concentrations. Furthermore, the bulk concentration in Máaz is an order of magnitude higher than in Séítah (roughly 20 versus 2 ppm).

Diverse fluorescence across formations

The Máaz and Séítah fm are two geologically and compositionally distinct formations that also show two different patterns of fluorescence. Following the hypothesis of the fluorescence being entirely organic in origin, these findings would indicate different bulk quantities of organic material, with Máaz having an order of magnitude more than Séítah. While colocations between organic features and minerals associated with aqueous processes were found in both formations, the colocation with primary igneous minerals was different. The group 2 feature was associated with olivine at many points in all Séítah targets and to pyroxene in two Máaz targets (Fig. 5 ). This suggests several mechanisms of synthesis or preservation, which may be at least partially unique to each formation. A similar pattern of organics associated with pyroxene and olivine has been shown in studies on meteorites ALH84001, Nakhla and Tissint. In these cases, the organic material has been shown to be synthesized in situ 5 . Further observation of the cored samples is needed to confirm the provenance and formation mechanism of this material.

figure 5

Select mineral detections (Raman shift, cm −1 ) and their fluorescence features ( λ max , nm) for abraded targets analysed using unsmoothed data from HDR and detail scans; both Raman and fluorescence data are measured on the same point. Máaz scans (blue) used between 250 and 500 ppp, yielding low signal-to-noise ratio (less than 2) in some cases that were not included; Séítah scans (green) all used 500 ppp, allowing for comparatively more Raman detections. Mineral classifications based on high confidence Raman detections of major peaks are indicated by boxed regions: olivine (roughly 825–847 cm −1 ) 2 , 19 , 26 , range of hydrated and dehydrated perchlorate (roughly 925–980 cm −1 ) 26 , 46 , phosphate (roughly 961–975 cm −1 ) 19 , 26 , 46 , pyroxene (roughly 1,000–1,026 cm −1 ) 19 , sulfate (roughly 990–1,041 cm −1 ) 2 , 19 , 26 , amorphous silicate (broad peak at roughly 1,020–1,080 cm −1 ) 2 , 26 and carbonate (roughly 1,085–1,102 cm −1 ) 19 , 46 . Markers outside a boxed region do not have a mineral assignment. Disambiguation of overlapping regions can generally be resolved by consideration of minor Raman peaks (not marked here) and corroboration by other instrument(s) (for example, PIXL/SuperCam) 47 .

Previous findings indicate that the two formations underwent different alteration processes. Máaz seems to be aqueously altered basaltic rock that contains Fe 3+ bearing alteration minerals 33 . Séítah is proposed to be an olivine cumulate 13 altered by fluids at low water to rock ratios 32 , and contains mafic minerals that have higher abundances of total FeO than Máaz rocks 34 . Owing to the presence in Máaz of Fe 3+ bearing minerals, which can attenuate the fluorescence response 35 , we would expect fewer and lower intensity fluorescence detections than in Séítah. However, our observations demonstrate the opposite, with Máaz targets having more fluorescence detections and highest localized fluorescence intensities. If the fluorescence is organic, this demonstrates a correlation of organics occurrence and abundance with the degree of water-driven alteration and suggests that these signatures are driven by synthesis and/or transport mechanisms rather than meteoritic deposition, which would probably affect both formations in a similar manner. The concentrations of organics associated with more aqueously altered surfaces are consistent with known bulk concentrations of organics observed in Martian meteorites at roughly 11 ppm 1 and in situ analysis performed by Curiosity rover in Gale crater that indicated organics concentrations from roughly 7 ppb to 11 ppm 2 .

The two formations also showed different types of fluorescence features. Whereas the group 1, 2 and 4 features were detected in both formations, Séítah showed a near-complete absence of group 3 features. This could indicate selective synthesis or preservation mechanisms that favour the organics associated with the longer wavelength fluorescence or a degradation process that only affected the group 3 associated organic molecules. The group 2 feature was most frequently detected in both formations, but showed differences in the abraded targets in Máaz and Séítah. Although the average band centre positions of the group 2 detections in both units were similar (Máaz 344.1 ± 1.5 nm; Séítah 343.1 ± 0.5 nm), the range of band centres in abraded Séítah targets was narrower (roughly 340–345 nm), whereas the band centres in abraded Máaz targets were more broadly distributed (roughly 338–349 nm).

Potential mechanisms affecting organic matter

The four fluorescence features observed on the ten targets interrogated by SHERLOC each show varying degrees of mineral association and spatial patterning, suggesting that these features may originate from more than one mechanism of formation, deposition or preservation. Two of the features, groups 1 and 4, were highly localized to specific minerals, whereas the other two features were associated with several minerals and more broadly distributed. Continuing the organic hypothesis, the clearest association between a specific organic detection, mineral detection and texture was the group 1 feature found on Bellegarde and Quartier associated with white sulfate grains (Fig. 3 ). One possible mechanism consistent with this association is abiotic aqueous organic synthesis. Aromatic molecules, including sulfur-containing species, associated with sulfate have been found in Tissint, Nakhla and NWA 1950 (ref. 5 ) and were proposed in these cases to be the result of electrochemical reduction of aqueous CO 2 to organic molecules due to interactions of spinel-group materials, sulfides and a brine. Organics in ALH84001 have been shown to be produced during carbonation and serpentinization reactions, indicating that several abiotic organic synthesis mechanisms can occur on Mars. Alternatively, this organic-mineral association could be the result of mineral-mediated selective preservation of transported organic compounds in sulfate. Previous work has shown that sulfates, including gypsum and magnesium sulfate, can protect organic molecules within their crystal lattices from UV radiation and oxidation 36 and terrestrial evaporitic sulfate minerals can preserve organic material over geological timescales 37 , 38 .

The group 2 feature was the most frequently detected across all target types and formations, suggesting that a common synthesis, deposition, preservation or alteration process was responsible. Previous literature has implied that primary organic carbon is potentially ubiquitous in Martian basaltic rocks and there may be an abiotic reservoir of organic carbon on the planet 39 . Although most of the mineral associations of the group 2 feature were common across both formations, the association with pyroxene in Máaz targets and olivine in Séítah targets suggests that potentially distinct mineral-mediated processes influenced these organics (Fig. 5 ). These could include formation of an aromatic radiolysis product by means of a mineral-mediated alteration reaction 30 , 31 , 40 , 41 . The paucity of fluorescence detections and near absence of group 3 detections in Séítah suggest that there was different synthesis or deposition in this formation or the organic compounds were more thoroughly degraded. The relative ages of the two units are such that increased degradation in Séítah would have to be due to another phenomenon, such as accelerated erosion processes or potential brief exposure to a more acidic fluid than in Máaz that could affect organic matter.

In natural targets, fluorescence detections do not seem to correlate with morphological features or textures, which is consistent with the aromatic emitters present within the ubiquitous Martian dust. Meteoritic infall and interplanetary dust particles transport organic molecules to the surface of Mars, which are subsequently oxidized 42 , 43 . The presence of dust would also explain the fewer detectable signals on natural targets, as it may absorb or scatter incident light.

Conclusions

Samples analysed in two formations within Jezero crater yielded detections by both fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy consistent with organic material that is colocated with specific mineral assemblages. The general spatial correlation between these detections and minerals that have undergone substantial aqueous processing suggests that organic molecules may have been abiotically aqueously deposited or synthesized within these altered volcanic materials within the crater floor. Differences in the nature and distribution of organic molecules in the formations would indicate that different aqueous alteration or deposition processes occurred, possibly contributing to the diversity of organic matter still present. The confirmation of organic origin and specific identification of these molecules will require samples to be returned to Earth for laboratory analysis. However, these results indicate a more complex organic geochemical cycle may have existed than has been described from previous in situ measurements on Mars, as evidenced by several distinct pools of possible organics. In summary, key building blocks for life may have been present over an extended period of time (from at least roughly 2.3–2.6 Ga, ref. 44 ), along with other as yet undetected chemical species that could be preserved within these two potentially habitable paleo-depositional settings in Jezero crater.

Further observations for group 2 fluorescence features

The overlap between the Raman signals from dehydrated perchlorates and phosphates coupled with low signal-to-noise made distinguishing between these assignments challenging in some cases. The key difference in mineral associations was that in three Máaz fm targets (Montpezat, Bellegarde and Alfalfa), the group 2 fluorescence feature was also associated with possible detections of pyroxene. By contrast, in the Séítah fm, this feature was associated with a possible detection of olivine in at least one point on each target (Extended Data Table 2 ).

Group 2 fluorescence bands in the natural targets (Máaz fm.) showed a similar shape to those in abraded targets, but the average band position in survey scans was 346.1 ± 2.0 nm, although it may be higher and obscured as it overlaps with the edge of the SHERLOC spectral range. This feature was not correlated to any specific texture. No identifiable Raman bands were detected on these targets, probably due to lower pulses per point (ppp) in the performed scans as well as signal attenuation due to out-of-focus regions and a dust layer; this precluded mineral identification. Signal attenuation aligns with the lower average intensity observed with the group 2 feature on natural targets (188 ± 42 counts) in comparison to dust-free abraded targets.

Potential non-organic luminescence

Luminescence can be caused by non-organic sources as well as organic; however, excitation in the deep UV (less than 250 nm) has the advantage of being in the wavelength range to resonantly excite one- and two-ring aromatics and to avoid most of the interfering luminescence responses from rare earth ions. Nevertheless, the features of the presented dataset (including mineral associations, spatial distribution, frequency of detection, maximum lambda value (lambda max) of the emission bands, and context from previous Mars missions and Martian meteorites) should be compared in the context of each proposed source.

Fluorescence in inorganic minerals, such as feldspars 46 , can be due to emitters such as rare earth elements (REEs), or lanthanides and other metals within a mineral matrix that can act as activators 19 . REEs, in most cases, have emissions at wavelengths higher than the SHERLOC spectral range (that is, more than 360 nm) 19 , 48 . The most relevant REE to the reported detections is cerium, which can generate emissions within certain minerals in the detection range of SHERLOC. Under 266 nm excitation, Ce 3+ in phosphates has been reported to emit roughly 340 nm luminescence 49 that resembles some group 2 detections. In the dataset presented here, group 2 fluorescence is not always associated with a Raman identification of a phosphate mineral phase. However, Raman scattering of phosphates is not resonantly enhanced with the SHERLOC DUV laser, so the lack of a Raman detection colocated with 340 nm fluorescence does not preclude Ce 3+ in phosphates as the source of the roughly 340 nm emission. The emission spectra of Ce 3+ is highly matrix dependent and changes in mineralogy and mineral composition can notably affect the emission profile 19 . As shown in Fig. 5 , the observed fluorescence is associated with a variety of minerals from aqueous processes that include sulfates, phosphates and carbonates, and is similar in position and shape regardless of association. Simple aromatic organic molecules can be preserved in these phases, and therefore are also potential sources for the reported fluorescence. However, it is possible that both organic and inorganic sources, or inorganic sources alone, contribute to the group 2 signals, as REE-bearing phosphates and organics preserved in phosphates have both been reported within Martian meteorites 50 , 51 .

In a laboratory study of synthetic ceric sulfate decomposition, strong photoluminescence emissions were reported 52 . In this study, both laboratory-synthesized and commercial ceric sulfate were heated to 500 °C for 16 h, then observed with a spectrofluorimeter. Ce 3+ in both pentahydrated sulfates and anhydrous sulfate yielded double peaked emissions, at 319/339 and 322/339 nm, respectively. This latter observation aligns with other photoluminescence studies 53 . The closest emissions of cerium within sulfate reported in literature (at 304/327 nm), to the authors’ knowledge, is in a study of synthetic heat-treated anhydrite doped with Ce 3+ and observed with cathodoluminescence 54 . There is an unexplained 12–13 nm difference in emissions of synthetic Ce-doped anhydrite and Ce 3+ in natural anhydrite from many locations also measured in this study, indicating that the synthetic sample may not be the most accurate comparison to our dataset. As such, further laboratory analyses on both natural and synthetic cerium-containing sulfate samples are continuing. The lambda max of luminescence emission of cerium in sulfates is expected to shift on the basis of the hydration state of the mineral 52 . SHERLOC observed sulfates in different states of hydration, for instance on the several observations of the Quartier target, yet the observed fluorescence remained consistent in lambda max. Given the reported emissions of several organic molecules under DUV excitation (Extended Data Fig. 3 ) in this range, it seems likely that one or more of these molecules may be present in the sulfate minerals. The presence of organics could also possibly explain the Raman detections between roughly 1,300 and 1,650 cm −1 . Finally, in the dataset presented here, group 1 was associated with sulfates in all cases; however, many points across targets showed clear Raman peaks of sulfates without the colocated fluorescence signal. This heterogeneity also aligns with the expected patterns of organics distribution. Further examination of the Quartier scans through more detailed analysis and laboratory comparisons is currently underway.

A subset of the signals in group 3 (roughly 281 nm) are also consistent with luminescence associated with defects in irradiated silica caused by oxygen deficiency centres 55 . However, we do not anticipate that the SHERLOC laser would create such defects, given the high power required to do so. Furthermore, we do not see a clear increase in detections at roughly 281 nm in higher ppp scans in comparison to low ppp, which would be expected if SHERLOC’s laser was inducing such damage. Investigation of other mechanisms (for example, radiation) that would cause localized silica defects that could produce luminescence consistent with group 3 features is continuing.

Future possibilities for Mars sample return

The potential detection of organic molecules by SHERLOC in the abraded targets marked the corresponding cores as high priority for sampling during the crater floor campaign. If these samples are returned to terrestrial laboratories, a more diverse suite of tools can be used to study the samples, including at higher spatial resolution and with much greater specificity and sensitivity. The organic material and mineral relationships can be interpreted within the context of their original locations and stratigraphy, unveiling new insights into organic geochemical cycling on Mars.

SHERLOC spectroscopy general operations

The use of a DUV wavelength may enable more sensitivity to aromatic organic molecules in complex matrices. At 248.6 nm wavelength excitation, a 10 to 1,000-fold increase in Raman scattering is provided by resonance and preresonance with aromatic organic molecules that have a large absorption cross-section. Measured Raman intensities are governed by both their Raman cross-sections and also the number of molecules excited. Transparent minerals with high scattering cross-sections can lead to large intensities whereas relatively few organic molecules in resonance with the SHERLOC laser can lead to similar intensities. Measured fluorescence intensities of mixtures are affected by their quantum yields but also self-absorption. Förster energy transfer can result in the measured intensity of only a single fluorophore even though a mixture of several species exists. Analysis of both fluorescence and Raman data can yield unique insight into mixtures of minerals and organics.

SHERLOC spectroscopy measurements are colocated with 1,648 × 1,200-pixel ACI autofocus full-frame images and placed on the desired target at a 48 mm standoff distance. Activities are constrained by the time of day the laser is operating, optimizing the temperature of the spectrometer CCD to be below −20 °C and reducing contributions from ambient light. Of the 14 instances SHERLOC spectroscopy has run on the surface of Mars to date, there was only one activity that occurred slightly outside this optimal temperature range (the first abraded target, Guillaumes run on sol 161). This temperature constraint to generate valuable science data for SHERLOC means that it is optimal for SHERLOC spectroscopy to be run in the evening, after 20:00 (or early in the morning, but evening is preferred). SHERLOC spectroscopy was conducted on natural samples at midday and abraded samples in the evening, after local sunset, with the abovementioned exception of Guillaumes on sol 161. The robotic arm is capable of placing SHERLOC within 12 mm of a targeted location; SHERLOC’s internal scanning mirror has a positioning error of less than 22 μm at the target. The spectrometer has an estimated uncertainty of ±5 cm −1 (±0.004 nm) in the 700–1,800 cm −1 region, on the basis of the calibration performed on sols 59 and 181. SHERLOC spectroscopy on natural and abraded targets has evolved since the initial natural surface measurement on sol 83. In general, there are two standard suite measurements, with slight modifications where necessary, for SHERLOC spectroscopy and ACI imaging scans: (1) HDR and survey scans, ACI four-image mosaic, ACI 31-image z -stack and (2) detailed scans, which are usually coupled with a survey scan run before the detail scans, for context. In this study, spatial correlations, histograms and average number of detections of fluorescence were conducted using survey scans; mineral-textural-organic correlations were performed using HDR and detailed scans. In the cases of two sols of observation on the same target, the following sols observations were used: Guillaumes 161, Quartier 293 and 304 and Dourbes 257 and 269. Two survey scans were performed on Guillaumes, Dourbes and Quartier. Sol 141 imaging on Foux had an incomplete overlap of WATSON imaging and SHERLOC spectroscopy mapping.

SHERLOC spectroscopy sequences

Natural targets.

HDR scans consisted of three sets of 100 spectra, coarse-spaced (780 µm step size), 7 × 7 mm 2 scan area, at high ppp (100 ppp for the first two scans, 300 ppp for the final scan). The first natural sample, Nataani, uplinked on sol 83, had 5, 50 and 100 ppp. The survey scan consisted of one scan of 1,296 spectra, 144 µm step size, 5 × 5 mm 2 scan area at low ppp; typically, 15 ppp, but 10 ppp and a step size of 200 µm was used for Nataani.

Abraded targets

The first abraded target, Guillaumes, followed the typical HDR scan sequencing, and consisted of three sets of 100 spectra; coarse-spaced (780 µm step size); 7 × 7 mm 2 scan area; 100, 100 and 300 ppp followed by a survey scan of 1,296 spectra; 144 µm step size; 5 × 5 mm 2 scan area and 15 ppp. In the targets analysed after Guillaumes, HDR scans were changed to two maps of 250 ppp (that is, 250/250) but conserved the total number of laser pulses (500), producing two 50 spectra maps for a total of 100 spectra when combined. The abraded samples also universally used a high laser current (25 A compared to the previous natural surface targets, which were shot at 20 A). When analysing the target, Garde, we had an option to use detailed mode scans for the first time. The initial scan on Garde on sol 207 used the standard suite HDR and survey scans. On sol 208, we did two sets of 50 spectra, 100 µm step size, 1 × 1 mm 2 scan area and 500 ppp detailed scans. Although the survey scan was not included in sol 208, it became standard to include for subsequent detail scans (for example, Dourbes on sol 269 and Quartier on sol 304). The scan start position for all HDR and survey scan is at the centre, whereas for the detail scans the scanner starts in the corner or offset position.

SHERLOC imaging operations

The two imaging systems, WATSON and ACI, are mounted atop a rotatable turret on the rover arm and are used during each SHERLOC observation. They are not coboresighted but the resulting images can be registered and overlaid to provide colour and textural information for a single target. WATSON acquires 1,600 × 1,200-pixel colour images of targets of interest from 2.5–40 cm standoff distances to provide broader context within the rock and outcrop. ACI images are always taken before spectroscopy and begin with two 256 × 256-pixel autofocus subframe and full-frame images. Further contextual imaging to support SHERLOC spectroscopy and correlation to images taken by other instruments, spectroscopy operations typically include a four-image ACI mosaic and a 31-image z -stack. The timing and lighting conditions of these products have been adjusted accordingly over the course of the ten targets (and 14 individual sample measurements) that SHERLOC has investigated. Typical operations for LED lighting are to take ACI images with all white LEDs turned on. Dourbes (sol 257) was the first time we had experimented with different lighting conditions on a target. For subsequent standard suite measurements, this update to the LED configuration (different group LEDs on and the use of UV LEDs) became a standard part of the sequences. The scanner is in the home position for the acquisition of the z -stack, which provides surface topographic relief when the in-focus images are assessed on the ground. The scanner is in the mosaic position for acquisition of the mosaic.

Abrasion operations

Each selected target studied after sol 141 was abraded using the rover’s abrasion tool before SHERLOC observation. This tool grinds away the upper layer of rock, cuttings of which are then removed using the gaseous dust removal tool to reveal a fresh surface for analysis 14 . The resulting abrasion patch is a 45 mm diameter circle with a depth of 8–10 mm.

Spectral data processing

Unsmoothed data without outlier removal were used to determine intensities and band positions. Preliminary spectral data processing was performed using an open-source software package named Loupe developed at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory by K. Uckert. This software enables dark frame subtraction, laser normalization and selection of regions of interest (ROI), as well as the correlation of individual spectra to locations on the ACI image on the basis of the scanning mirror positioning. Exported Loupe data were then further processed using custom Python scripts, Microsoft Excel and Spectragryph 52 . These were used to perform baseline subtraction, outlier removal, peak detection and median smoothing in a semi-automated manner (the last only for fluorescence data in Fig. 4 and Extended Data Fig. 3 ). Outliers, generally caused by cosmic rays or charge buildup on the detector, were removed through subtraction and then the remaining data were interpolated across the spectrum. Requirements for fluorescence peak detection included FWHM of at least 100 pixels and more than five times the neighbouring background signal estimated by measurement in Loupe. A 10/1 signal-to-noise ratio was required for quantification, which may have excluded a small number points with actual signal but was deemed a robust criterion for accurate measurement of lambda max and FWHM. Fluorescence spectra used in Figs. 2 – 4 , Extended Data Table 2 and Extended Data Figs. 4 and 5 were smoothed using the Savitzky–Golay algorithm with parameters manually tweaked after comparison to non-processed spectra. This was performed using the SciPy Python package 53 . This algorithm is known to introduce boundary artefacts 45 , which can be seen less than 270 nm in several spectra that are not representative of the true data. Fluorescence data were also fitted in Igor64 (Wavemetrics) to allow for measurement of lambda max and FWHM. Bands were fitted using Gaussian or exponentially modified Gaussian functions; baselines were fitted using constant, linear or cubic functions on the basis of visual analysis and chi-squared goodness-of-fit values. For cases in which the fluorescence band was cut off by the edge detector, such as in group 2, the band was always assumed to be symmetric beyond the cut off. For Fig. 5 , lambda max and FWHM of each fluorescence spectrum was measured before association to a Raman signal (and possible mineral association) was considered, to maintain objectivity and avoid bias. Requirements for Raman peak detection included FWHM of at least 4 pixels and more than twice the neighbouring (10 pixels) background signal intensity estimated by measurement in Loupe. This width threshold was selected on the basis of the spectral resolution of the instrument (roughly 3–4 pixels) 54 . FWHM of Raman spectra in Fig. 4 were baselined using the airPLS algorithm 55 implemented in Python. Unsmoothed Raman data were fitted using the Multipeak Fit package in Igor64 (Wavemetrics), which enabled peak identification and fitting as well as baseline fitting and chi-squared value approximation. The signal-to-noise ratio for SHERLOC data from the rock surfaces was lower as expected than on calibration targets (Fig. 4 ); in applicable cases, data from several points were averaged to remove the impact of cosmic rays and improve signal.

Image processing

Image processing on both WATSON and ACI products was performed using a Python script to register several images for a single target to create an overlay. The script uses the OpenCV library built in classes to implement BRISK keypoint detection and a FLANN-based matcher to match keypoints to generate the overlays. ACI ECM products and WATSON ECM or ECZ (roughly 4 to 10 cm standoff) images were used in all cases. Colourized ACI products used for correlating spectral, colour and textural information were generated as previously described 16 . Small artefacts of bright colours are visible in these colourized images in certain cases.

SHERLOC analogue instrument data

Reference spectra presented were collected on two laboratory instruments, Brassboard (Jet Propulsion Laboratory) and MORIARTI (Mineralogy and Organics Raman Instrumentation for the Analysis of Terrestrial Illumination) (University of Pittsburgh), that are analogues of SHERLOC modified to operate under terrestrial ambient conditions. Brassboard configuration and operations are described in previous literature 20 . MORIARTI is a custom DUV Raman microscope coupled with several spectrometers to cover the entire Raman and fluorescence (UV and visible light) spectral range. Samples can be illuminated with either a Coherent Industries Innova 300 FreD frequency-doubled Ar+ laser (248.3 nm, roughly 10 mW average power) or a Photon System NeCu laser (248.6 nm, roughly 20 μJ per pulse, 80 Hz). Laser light passes through a 248.6 nm laser clean up filter before being focused onto a turning prism and directed onto the sample as a roughly 120 μm diameter spot. Scattered and emitted light is collected in a 180° backscatter geometry using an f1.25 reflective cassegrain objective and passes through a Semrock 248 nm long-pass filter before entering one of the spectrometers. For Raman, light is dispersed from 250 to 278 nm to a resolution of 9 cm −1 inside an f/6.8 Czerny–Turner spectrograph and focused onto a Princeton Instruments liquid nitrogen cooled Pylon 400B CCD. For UV fluorescence, light is dispersed from 180 to 350 nm to a resolution of 0.5 nm by a custom Ocean Optics QE Pro spectrograph. For visible fluorescence, light is dispersed from 250 to 1,100 nm, to a resolution of 1.5 nm by an Ocean Optics HR4000 spectrograph. The sample can also be illuminated by a halogen white light, in which it is imaged onto a 1.6MP Thorlabs CMOS camera.

Data availability

The data used for this study are released on the Planetary Data System (PDS) at https://pds.nasa.gov/ . Data from the SHERLOC instrument are accessible at https://pds-geosciences.wustl.edu/missions/mars2020/sherloc.htm . Spectral data are organized by sol number and accessible in csv format at https://pds-geosciences.wustl.edu/m2020/urn-nasa-pds-mars2020_sherloc/data_processed/ . Fundamental data record image data acquired by the ACI are organized by sol number and accessible in IMG format at https://pds-imaging.jpl.nasa.gov/data/mars2020/mars2020_imgops/data_aci_imgops/sol/ . Fundamental data record image data acquired by the WATSON are organized by sol number and accessible in IMG format at https://pds-imaging.jpl.nasa.gov/data/mars2020/mars2020_imgops/data_watson_imgops/sol/ .

Code availability

All code used for image and data processing in this manuscript uses open-source libraries or previously published methods described herein. The code for ACI colorization is available under the Apache 2.0 licence at https://github.com/nasa-jpl/ACI-colorization . Loupe software is open source under the Apache 2.0 licence and available at https://github.com/nasa/Loupe .

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Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the entire Mars 2020 Perseverance rover team. The research described in this paper was partially carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant award no. 80NM0018D0004. The SHERLOC team is supported by the NASA Mars 2020 Phase E funds to the SHERLOC investigation. S. Siljeström acknowledges funding from the Swedish National Space Agency (contract nos. 137/19 and 2021-00092). T.F. acknowledges funding from Italian Space Agency (ASI) grant agreement no. ASI/INAF no. 2017-48-H-0. S. Shkolyar acknowledges support from NASA under grant award no. 80GSFC21M0002.

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These authors contributed equally: Sunanda Sharma, Ryan D. Roppel

Authors and Affiliations

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

Sunanda Sharma, William J. Abbey, Abigail C. Allwood, Emily L. Cardarelli, Lauren P. DeFlores, Yang Liu, Kathryn M. Stack, Kim Steadman, Michael Tuite & Kyle Uckert

Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Ryan D. Roppel, Sanford A. Asher & Sergei V. Bykov

Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, AZ, USA

Ashley E. Murphy

Melanie Sauer and Associates, LLC, Sierra Madre, CA, USA

Luther W. Beegle

Photon Systems Incorporated, Covina, CA, USA

Rohit Bhartia

Earth and Planets Laboratory, Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington, DC, USA

Andrew Steele & Pamela G. Conrad

The Natural History Museum, London, UK

Joseph Razzell Hollis & Keyron Hickman-Lewis

Department of Methodology, Textiles and Medical Technology, RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Stockholm, Sweden

Sandra Siljeström

Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science Division, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX, USA

Francis M. McCubbin, Eve L. Berger, Aaron S. Burton, Allison C. Fox, Marc D. Fries, Ryan S. Jakubek & Carina Lee

Texas State University, Houston, TX, USA

Eve L. Berger, Allison C. Fox & Carina Lee

Jacobs JETS II, Houston, TX, USA

Eve L. Berger, Allison C. Fox, Ryan S. Jakubek & Carina Lee

Malin Space Science Systems, Inc., San Diego, CA, USA

Benjamin L. Bleefeld, Kenneth Edgett, David Harker, Joshua Huggett, Samara Imbeah, Angela Magee, Alyssa Pascuzzo, Carolina Rodriguez Sanchez-Vahamonde, Alyssa Werynski & Megan R. Kennedy

Department of Geosciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA

Andrea Corpolongo & Andrew D. Czaja

Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

Kenneth A. Farley & Kelsey R. Moore

Astrophysical Observatory of Arcetri, INAF, Florence, Italy

Teresa Fornaro

Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA

Linda C. Kah

Framework, Silver Spring, MD, USA

Michelle Minitti

Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA

Eva L. Scheller

Department of Astronomy, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

Svetlana Shkolyar

Planetary Geology, Geophysics and Geochemistry Lab, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA

Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Seattle, WA, USA

Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN, USA

Roger C. Wiens

Department of Geological Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

Amy J. Williams

School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA

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Impossible Sensing, LLC, St. Louis, MO, USA

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Contributions

S.S. and R.D.R. contributed equally to data analysis, drafting the manuscript and figures with substantial contributions from A.E.M. and A.S. A.E.M., R.B., A.S., J.R.H., S.V.B., A.C. and R.S.J. helped in data analysis and interpretation. A.E.M., L.W.B., R.B., A.C., A.S., W.J.A., B.L.B., E.L.C., P.G.C., A.D.C., K.E., A.C.F., D.H., J.H., S.I., L.C.K., C.L., A.M., M.M., A.P., C.R., A.W., R.C.W. A.J.W., K.W., M.W. and A.Y. helped with M2020 surface operations. L.W.B. and R.B. are the former principal investigator and deputy investigator, respectively, of the SHERLOC instrument. M.M. is the current interim principal investigator of the SHERLOC instrument and K.U. is the current deputy investigator. K.A.F. and K.M.S. are the project scientist and deputy project scientists, respectively, of the M2020 mission. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript before submission.

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Correspondence to Sunanda Sharma .

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Extended data figures and tables

Extended data fig. 1 group 2 fluorescence across all targets analyzed by sherloc..

Colorized ACI images from survey scans of each of the 3 natural targets (top left), 4 Máaz abraded targets (right), and 3 Séítah abraded targets (bottom left). Green spots represent the relative laser beam diameter that have a positive identification for the ~335–350 nm fluorescence.

Extended Data Fig. 2 Group 3 Fluorescence Across All Targets Analyzed by SHERLOC.

Colorized ACI images from survey scans of each of the 3 natural targets (top left), 4 Máaz abraded targets (right), and 3 Séítah abraded targets (bottom left). Green spots represent the relative laser beam diameter that have a positive identification for the ~270–295 nm fluorescence. No ~270–295 nm fluorescence was observed on survey scans in Garde and Quartier.

Extended Data Fig. 3 Reference Fluorescence Spectra for 1 and 2 ring organic compounds.

Fluorescence emissions of a sample set of 1- and 2-ring organic compounds analyzed on a SHERLOC analog instrument.

Extended Data Fig. 4 Group 2 Fluorescence Feature Mineral Associations in Alfalfa and Dourbes.

A) Colorized ACI of Alfalfa (Máaz fm.) HDR scan on sol 370 with laser overlay (grey = no fluorescence detected, yellow = fluorescence at ~335–350 nm detected). Three points of interest with clear fluorescence are marked in white and correlate to the smoothed mean spectra below. Point 1 was co-located with Raman detections of amorphous silicate (broad ~1063 cm −1 ); Point 2 and 3 were co-located with potential perchlorate detections (~961 cm −1 ). B) Colorized ACI of Dourbes (Séítah fm.) Detail 1 scan on sol 269 with laser overlay (gray = no fluorescence detected, yellow = fluorescence at ~335–350 nm detected). Three points of interest with clear fluorescence are marked in white and correlate to the spectra below. Point 1 was co-located with Raman detections of potential olivine (~823 cm −1 ) and carbonate (~1077 cm −1 ); Point 2 was co-located with a potential carbonate detection (~10 cm −1 ); and Point 3 with an unassigned peak at ~1015 cm −1 .

Extended Data Fig. 5 Mean Fluorescence Spectra on Two Regions of Meteorite Calibration Target.

A) Colorized ACI image from a survey scan of the meteorite calibration target from sol 181. Green spots represent the relative laser beam diameter that have a positive identification for the ~335–350 nm fluorescence. B) Mean fluorescence spectra from locations by all green spots in A (red spectrum, n = 137) and mean fluorescence spectra from green spots bounded by the black box from the vug (black spectrum, n = 36).

Extended Data Fig. 6 Group 3 Feature Mineral Association in Bellegarde and Group 4 Feature ~290 & 330 nm Feature and Mineral Associations in Garde.

A) Colorized ACI of Bellegarde (Máaz fm.) HDR scan on sol 186 with laser overlay (gray = no fluorescence detected, yellow = fluorescence at ~270–295 nm detected). Three points of interest with Group 3 fluorescence are marked in white and correlate to the smoothed mean spectra below. Point 1 and 2 were co-located with a potential phosphate or perchlorate detection (~973, ~965 cm −1 ); Point 3 was not co-located with a mineral detection. In all of these points, high intensity Group 2 fluorescence was also detected. B) Colorized ACI of Garde (Séítah fm.) Detail centre 1 scan on sol 208 with laser overlay (gray = no fluorescence detected, yellow = fluorescence at ~290 & 330 nm doublet detected). Three points of interest with clear fluorescence are marked in white and correlate to the spectra below. All three points were co-located with Raman detections of potential carbonate (~1088, ~1080, ~1085 cm −1 ).

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Sharma, S., Roppel, R.D., Murphy, A.E. et al. Diverse organic-mineral associations in Jezero crater, Mars. Nature 619 , 724–732 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06143-z

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Received : 07 June 2022

Accepted : 27 April 2023

Published : 12 July 2023

Issue Date : 27 July 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06143-z

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mars research report

mars research report

Mars Desert Research Station

GreenHab Report – February 10th

GreenHab Officer: Mehnaz Jabeen Environmental control: heater on , fan off , door close Average temperature 6:30 70 F, 27% 18:30: 75.F, 20% Hours of supplemental light: 22:00 – 02:00 Daily water usage for crops: 8 gallons Daily water usage for research and/or other purposes: 0.6 gallons Water in Blue Tank (200 gallon capacity): 151.94 gallons Time(s) of watering for crops: 18:30 Changes to crops: More ripe tomatoes Narrative: Yesterday as I mentioned in my report about my new experiment to validate my research I went to the GreenHab around 20:00 to the GreenHab with Aditya, our crew astronomer and Rajvi, our crew engineer. We performed the experiment namely ‘the pan experiment’ using some of the water from the GreenHab and left one pan in the GreenHab and kept one in the growth tent at science dorm. We will be checking them again today around the same time. Sol 5 started a bit earlier than the other days. I woke up at 6 am and went to the GreenHab to water the plants. I did my usual duty of checking moisture levels for each crop and the crops were keeping up with the same levels so I decided to delay watering them to see if the moisture levels drops. The Crew woke up by 7:30 and started Yoga session. The whole crew woke up to stretch our bodies since some of us had to leave for EVA. Right after Yoga and breakfast I finished my mid mission report and left for EVA. Later in the evening around 18:30 I went to the hab and noticed the moisture level has dropped to 6-8%. So I watered all the crops and left back to hab. Harvest: None Support/supplies needed: None

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IMAGES

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  6. What Would Mars Look Like if an Astronaut Could Orbit the Planet? Mars of Report

COMMENTS

  1. Research Papers

    Mission Mission Science Curiosity Research Papers Mars Science Laboratory Science Team Papers: Download Publications List (PDF) From January 31, 2019, Science Magazine Issue: (Lewis et al.) A surface gravity traverse on Mars indicates low bedrock density at Gale Crater Abstract | Reprint | Full Text

  2. NASA Mars Exploration

    Mission Statement. The goal of the Mars Exploration Program is to explore Mars and to provide a continuous flow of scientific information and discovery through a carefully selected series of robotic orbiters, landers and mobile laboratories interconnected by a high-bandwidth Mars/Earth communications network.

  3. PDF Mars, the Nearest Habitable World

    Report by the NASA Mars Architecture Strategy Working Group (MASWG) November 2020 ii Front Cover: Artist Concepts Top(Artist concepts, left to right): Early Mars1; Molecules in Space2; Astronaut and Rover on Mars1; Exo-Planet System1. Bottom: Pillinger Point, Endeavour Crater, as imaged by the Opportunityrover1.

  4. Life on Mars, can we detect it?

    Almost half a century ago the NASA Viking landers searched for evidence of life in Mars soils by attempting to detect active metabolism and measuring organic compounds by heating to vaporize them...

  5. Initial results from the InSight mission on Mars

    … Mark Wieczorek Show authors Nature Geoscience 13 , 183-189 ( 2020) Cite this article 25k Accesses 254 Citations 1202 Altmetric Metrics Abstract NASA's InSight (Interior exploration using...

  6. On Mars, a Year of Surprise and Discovery

    On Mars, a NASA Rover and Helicopter's Year of Surprise and Discovery - The New York Times On Mars, a Year of Surprise and Discovery The past 12 months on Mars have been both "exciting" and...

  7. Mars towards the future

    Three spacecraft from three different nations arrived at Mars in February 2021. Two of those nations are newcomers to Mars and the third successfully set out the path for a Mars sample return.

  8. Overview and Results From the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover's First

    The Mars 2020 Perseverance rover landed in Jezero crater on 18 February 2021. After a 100-sol period of commissioning and the Ingenuity Helicopter technology demonstration, Perseverance began its first science campaign to explore the enigmatic Jezero crater floor, whose igneous or sedimentary origins have been much debated in the scientific community.

  9. Frontiers

    The interest towards Mars research and exploration has gained significant momentum in the past three decades owing to the advances in computing, hardware, remote sensors, public data availability, and outreach.

  10. Current Mars Investigations

    Current Mars Investigations The weather and climate of Mars are controlled by the coupled seasonal cycles of CO2, dust, and water and their interactions with atmospheric circulations on a range of spatial and temporal scales. These topics are the foci of our group's current Mars investigations.

  11. Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment (MOXIE)—Preparing for human Mars ...

    Abstract. MOXIE [Mars Oxygen In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) Experiment] is the first demonstration of ISRU on another planet, producing oxygen by solid oxide electrolysis of carbon dioxide in the martian atmosphere. A scaled-up MOXIE would contribute to sustainable human exploration of Mars by producing on-site the tens of tons of oxygen ...

  12. Mars Colonization: Beyond Getting There

    Beyond an active target for space exploration, colonization of Mars has become a popular topic nowadays, fuelled by a potentially naive and somewhat questionable belief that this planet could at some point in time be terraformed to sustain human life. 1 Indeed, the Moon, while very close, is small, barren and devoid of atmosphere.

  13. News

    January 25, 2024 After Three Years on Mars, NASA's Ingenuity Helicopter Mission Ends NASA has proven powered, controlled flight is possible on other worlds, just as the Wright brothers proved it was possible on Earth. January 17, 2024 20 Years After Landing: How NASA's Twin Rovers Changed Mars Science

  14. Mars samples project looms large in final spending talks

    The mission. Congress to-date has appropriated $1.74 billion for the Mars program, which the most recent once-every-decade survey of planetary scientists called NASA's highest robotic exploration ...

  15. Advances in Mars Research and Exploration

    Advances in Mars Research and Exploration Overview Articles Authors Impact About this Research Topic Submission closed. Guidelines The pursuit of finding habitable conditions or life outside our planet has always been fascinating.

  16. Early Mars habitability and global cooling by H

    Because of the collision-induced absorption resulting from the CO 2 -saturated atmosphere of early Mars, H 2 appears to be a more potent greenhouse gas than CH 4, in line with previous studies 14 ...

  17. (PDF) Human Mars Exploration Research Objectives

    Mars has long been the ultimate goal for human space exploration. This paper will compile research objectives relevant to a Martian presence in an attempt to create a coherent justification...

  18. Partial Cover Malfunction on Perseverance's SHERLOC Instrument Impacts

    NASA's Perseverance Mars rover has encountered a hiccup in its quest to uncover the secrets of the Red Planet. The rover's team is currently assessing an issue with the SHERLOC (Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals) instrument, crucial for detecting signs of past microbial life on Mars.

  19. PDF Mars: A Primer on Modern Research and the Martian Past

    the planet Mars has been under intense study as far back as the 1400s BCE. As discovered by maps decorating the tomb of Senenmut and the Ramesseum, the ancient Egyptians nicknamed Mars 'Horus-the-Red' and were aware of its retrograde motion in the sky, a phenomenon

  20. Mars Research

    Mars Research. Since our first close-up picture of Mars in 1965, spacecraft voyages to the Red Planet have revealed a world strangely familiar, yet different enough to challenge our perceptions of what makes a planet work. ... The Center for Planetary Science is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization dedicated to conducting scientific research ...

  21. Mars Facts

    NASA's real-time portal for Mars exploration, featuring the latest news, images, and discoveries from the Red Planet.

  22. (PDF) Evidence of Life on Mars?

    Reports of water, biological residue discovered in Martian meteor ALH84001, the seasonal waning and waxing of atmospheric and ground level Martian methane which on Earth is 90% due to biology and...

  23. Passing Stars Altered Orbital Changes in Earth, Other Planets

    PSI scientists are involved in numerous NASA and international missions, the study of Mars and other planets, the Moon, asteroids, comets, interplanetary dust, impact physics, the origin of the Solar System, extra-solar planet formation, dynamics, the rise of life, and other areas of research.

  24. Diverse organic-mineral associations in Jezero crater, Mars

    The research described in this paper was partially carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space ...

  25. GreenHab Report

    The Mars Desert Research Station in the Utah desert was established by the Mars Society in 2001 to better educate researchers, students and the general public about how humans can survive on the Red Planet. It is the second Mars analogue habitat after the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station was established in 2000.. Over 200 crews of six-person teams have lived in 1-2 week field visits at ...

  26. Mars Research

    REPORT FINDINGS Actionable insights = educated decision-making. At Mars Research we strive to offer a customized product. Successful research techniques begin with understanding the specifications of our clients.

  27. Mars Research Review Board

    The Mars Research Review Board is made up of senior leaders at Mars: Vice President, Technology Vice President, Global Corporate Affairs Vice President, Corporate R&D Chief Science Officer General Counsel Global Food Law Head of Ethics & Welfare, WALTHAM, Mars Petcare Director, Scientific Policy and Engagement