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Home » Research Results Section – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Results Section – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Results

Research Results

Research results refer to the findings and conclusions derived from a systematic investigation or study conducted to answer a specific question or hypothesis. These results are typically presented in a written report or paper and can include various forms of data such as numerical data, qualitative data, statistics, charts, graphs, and visual aids.

Results Section in Research

The results section of the research paper presents the findings of the study. It is the part of the paper where the researcher reports the data collected during the study and analyzes it to draw conclusions.

In the results section, the researcher should describe the data that was collected, the statistical analysis performed, and the findings of the study. It is important to be objective and not interpret the data in this section. Instead, the researcher should report the data as accurately and objectively as possible.

Structure of Research Results Section

The structure of the research results section can vary depending on the type of research conducted, but in general, it should contain the following components:

  • Introduction: The introduction should provide an overview of the study, its aims, and its research questions. It should also briefly explain the methodology used to conduct the study.
  • Data presentation : This section presents the data collected during the study. It may include tables, graphs, or other visual aids to help readers better understand the data. The data presented should be organized in a logical and coherent way, with headings and subheadings used to help guide the reader.
  • Data analysis: In this section, the data presented in the previous section are analyzed and interpreted. The statistical tests used to analyze the data should be clearly explained, and the results of the tests should be presented in a way that is easy to understand.
  • Discussion of results : This section should provide an interpretation of the results of the study, including a discussion of any unexpected findings. The discussion should also address the study’s research questions and explain how the results contribute to the field of study.
  • Limitations: This section should acknowledge any limitations of the study, such as sample size, data collection methods, or other factors that may have influenced the results.
  • Conclusions: The conclusions should summarize the main findings of the study and provide a final interpretation of the results. The conclusions should also address the study’s research questions and explain how the results contribute to the field of study.
  • Recommendations : This section may provide recommendations for future research based on the study’s findings. It may also suggest practical applications for the study’s results in real-world settings.

Outline of Research Results Section

The following is an outline of the key components typically included in the Results section:

I. Introduction

  • A brief overview of the research objectives and hypotheses
  • A statement of the research question

II. Descriptive statistics

  • Summary statistics (e.g., mean, standard deviation) for each variable analyzed
  • Frequencies and percentages for categorical variables

III. Inferential statistics

  • Results of statistical analyses, including tests of hypotheses
  • Tables or figures to display statistical results

IV. Effect sizes and confidence intervals

  • Effect sizes (e.g., Cohen’s d, odds ratio) to quantify the strength of the relationship between variables
  • Confidence intervals to estimate the range of plausible values for the effect size

V. Subgroup analyses

  • Results of analyses that examined differences between subgroups (e.g., by gender, age, treatment group)

VI. Limitations and assumptions

  • Discussion of any limitations of the study and potential sources of bias
  • Assumptions made in the statistical analyses

VII. Conclusions

  • A summary of the key findings and their implications
  • A statement of whether the hypotheses were supported or not
  • Suggestions for future research

Example of Research Results Section

An Example of a Research Results Section could be:

  • This study sought to examine the relationship between sleep quality and academic performance in college students.
  • Hypothesis : College students who report better sleep quality will have higher GPAs than those who report poor sleep quality.
  • Methodology : Participants completed a survey about their sleep habits and academic performance.

II. Participants

  • Participants were college students (N=200) from a mid-sized public university in the United States.
  • The sample was evenly split by gender (50% female, 50% male) and predominantly white (85%).
  • Participants were recruited through flyers and online advertisements.

III. Results

  • Participants who reported better sleep quality had significantly higher GPAs (M=3.5, SD=0.5) than those who reported poor sleep quality (M=2.9, SD=0.6).
  • See Table 1 for a summary of the results.
  • Participants who reported consistent sleep schedules had higher GPAs than those with irregular sleep schedules.

IV. Discussion

  • The results support the hypothesis that better sleep quality is associated with higher academic performance in college students.
  • These findings have implications for college students, as prioritizing sleep could lead to better academic outcomes.
  • Limitations of the study include self-reported data and the lack of control for other variables that could impact academic performance.

V. Conclusion

  • College students who prioritize sleep may see a positive impact on their academic performance.
  • These findings highlight the importance of sleep in academic success.
  • Future research could explore interventions to improve sleep quality in college students.

Example of Research Results in Research Paper :

Our study aimed to compare the performance of three different machine learning algorithms (Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, and Neural Network) in predicting customer churn in a telecommunications company. We collected a dataset of 10,000 customer records, with 20 predictor variables and a binary churn outcome variable.

Our analysis revealed that all three algorithms performed well in predicting customer churn, with an overall accuracy of 85%. However, the Random Forest algorithm showed the highest accuracy (88%), followed by the Support Vector Machine (86%) and the Neural Network (84%).

Furthermore, we found that the most important predictor variables for customer churn were monthly charges, contract type, and tenure. Random Forest identified monthly charges as the most important variable, while Support Vector Machine and Neural Network identified contract type as the most important.

Overall, our results suggest that machine learning algorithms can be effective in predicting customer churn in a telecommunications company, and that Random Forest is the most accurate algorithm for this task.

Example 3 :

Title : The Impact of Social Media on Body Image and Self-Esteem

Abstract : This study aimed to investigate the relationship between social media use, body image, and self-esteem among young adults. A total of 200 participants were recruited from a university and completed self-report measures of social media use, body image satisfaction, and self-esteem.

Results: The results showed that social media use was significantly associated with body image dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem. Specifically, participants who reported spending more time on social media platforms had lower levels of body image satisfaction and self-esteem compared to those who reported less social media use. Moreover, the study found that comparing oneself to others on social media was a significant predictor of body image dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem.

Conclusion : These results suggest that social media use can have negative effects on body image satisfaction and self-esteem among young adults. It is important for individuals to be mindful of their social media use and to recognize the potential negative impact it can have on their mental health. Furthermore, interventions aimed at promoting positive body image and self-esteem should take into account the role of social media in shaping these attitudes and behaviors.

Importance of Research Results

Research results are important for several reasons, including:

  • Advancing knowledge: Research results can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in a particular field, whether it be in science, technology, medicine, social sciences, or humanities.
  • Developing theories: Research results can help to develop or modify existing theories and create new ones.
  • Improving practices: Research results can inform and improve practices in various fields, such as education, healthcare, business, and public policy.
  • Identifying problems and solutions: Research results can identify problems and provide solutions to complex issues in society, including issues related to health, environment, social justice, and economics.
  • Validating claims : Research results can validate or refute claims made by individuals or groups in society, such as politicians, corporations, or activists.
  • Providing evidence: Research results can provide evidence to support decision-making, policy-making, and resource allocation in various fields.

How to Write Results in A Research Paper

Here are some general guidelines on how to write results in a research paper:

  • Organize the results section: Start by organizing the results section in a logical and coherent manner. Divide the section into subsections if necessary, based on the research questions or hypotheses.
  • Present the findings: Present the findings in a clear and concise manner. Use tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data and make the presentation more engaging.
  • Describe the data: Describe the data in detail, including the sample size, response rate, and any missing data. Provide relevant descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations, and ranges.
  • Interpret the findings: Interpret the findings in light of the research questions or hypotheses. Discuss the implications of the findings and the extent to which they support or contradict existing theories or previous research.
  • Discuss the limitations : Discuss the limitations of the study, including any potential sources of bias or confounding factors that may have affected the results.
  • Compare the results : Compare the results with those of previous studies or theoretical predictions. Discuss any similarities, differences, or inconsistencies.
  • Avoid redundancy: Avoid repeating information that has already been presented in the introduction or methods sections. Instead, focus on presenting new and relevant information.
  • Be objective: Be objective in presenting the results, avoiding any personal biases or interpretations.

When to Write Research Results

Here are situations When to Write Research Results”

  • After conducting research on the chosen topic and obtaining relevant data, organize the findings in a structured format that accurately represents the information gathered.
  • Once the data has been analyzed and interpreted, and conclusions have been drawn, begin the writing process.
  • Before starting to write, ensure that the research results adhere to the guidelines and requirements of the intended audience, such as a scientific journal or academic conference.
  • Begin by writing an abstract that briefly summarizes the research question, methodology, findings, and conclusions.
  • Follow the abstract with an introduction that provides context for the research, explains its significance, and outlines the research question and objectives.
  • The next section should be a literature review that provides an overview of existing research on the topic and highlights the gaps in knowledge that the current research seeks to address.
  • The methodology section should provide a detailed explanation of the research design, including the sample size, data collection methods, and analytical techniques used.
  • Present the research results in a clear and concise manner, using graphs, tables, and figures to illustrate the findings.
  • Discuss the implications of the research results, including how they contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the topic and what further research is needed.
  • Conclude the paper by summarizing the main findings, reiterating the significance of the research, and offering suggestions for future research.

Purpose of Research Results

The purposes of Research Results are as follows:

  • Informing policy and practice: Research results can provide evidence-based information to inform policy decisions, such as in the fields of healthcare, education, and environmental regulation. They can also inform best practices in fields such as business, engineering, and social work.
  • Addressing societal problems : Research results can be used to help address societal problems, such as reducing poverty, improving public health, and promoting social justice.
  • Generating economic benefits : Research results can lead to the development of new products, services, and technologies that can create economic value and improve quality of life.
  • Supporting academic and professional development : Research results can be used to support academic and professional development by providing opportunities for students, researchers, and practitioners to learn about new findings and methodologies in their field.
  • Enhancing public understanding: Research results can help to educate the public about important issues and promote scientific literacy, leading to more informed decision-making and better public policy.
  • Evaluating interventions: Research results can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, such as treatments, educational programs, and social policies. This can help to identify areas where improvements are needed and guide future interventions.
  • Contributing to scientific progress: Research results can contribute to the advancement of science by providing new insights and discoveries that can lead to new theories, methods, and techniques.
  • Informing decision-making : Research results can provide decision-makers with the information they need to make informed decisions. This can include decision-making at the individual, organizational, or governmental levels.
  • Fostering collaboration : Research results can facilitate collaboration between researchers and practitioners, leading to new partnerships, interdisciplinary approaches, and innovative solutions to complex problems.

Advantages of Research Results

Some Advantages of Research Results are as follows:

  • Improved decision-making: Research results can help inform decision-making in various fields, including medicine, business, and government. For example, research on the effectiveness of different treatments for a particular disease can help doctors make informed decisions about the best course of treatment for their patients.
  • Innovation : Research results can lead to the development of new technologies, products, and services. For example, research on renewable energy sources can lead to the development of new and more efficient ways to harness renewable energy.
  • Economic benefits: Research results can stimulate economic growth by providing new opportunities for businesses and entrepreneurs. For example, research on new materials or manufacturing techniques can lead to the development of new products and processes that can create new jobs and boost economic activity.
  • Improved quality of life: Research results can contribute to improving the quality of life for individuals and society as a whole. For example, research on the causes of a particular disease can lead to the development of new treatments and cures, improving the health and well-being of millions of people.

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  • Manuscript Preparation

How to write the results section of a research paper

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Table of Contents

At its core, a research paper aims to fill a gap in the research on a given topic. As a result, the results section of the paper, which describes the key findings of the study, is often considered the core of the paper. This is the section that gets the most attention from reviewers, peers, students, and any news organization reporting on your findings. Writing a clear, concise, and logical results section is, therefore, one of the most important parts of preparing your manuscript.

Difference between results and discussion

Before delving into how to write the results section, it is important to first understand the difference between the results and discussion sections. The results section needs to detail the findings of the study. The aim of this section is not to draw connections between the different findings or to compare it to previous findings in literature—that is the purview of the discussion section. Unlike the discussion section, which can touch upon the hypothetical, the results section needs to focus on the purely factual. In some cases, it may even be preferable to club these two sections together into a single section. For example, while writing  a review article, it can be worthwhile to club these two sections together, as the main results in this case are the conclusions that can be drawn from the literature.

Structure of the results section

Although the main purpose of the results section in a research paper is to report the findings, it is necessary to present an introduction and repeat the research question. This establishes a connection to the previous section of the paper and creates a smooth flow of information.

Next, the results section needs to communicate the findings of your research in a systematic manner. The section needs to be organized such that the primary research question is addressed first, then the secondary research questions. If the research addresses multiple questions, the results section must individually connect with each of the questions. This ensures clarity and minimizes confusion while reading.

Consider representing your results visually. For example, graphs, tables, and other figures can help illustrate the findings of your paper, especially if there is a large amount of data in the results.

Remember, an appealing results section can help peer reviewers better understand the merits of your research, thereby increasing your chances of publication.

Practical guidance for writing an effective results section for a research paper

  • Always use simple and clear language. Avoid the use of uncertain or out-of-focus expressions.
  • The findings of the study must be expressed in an objective and unbiased manner. While it is acceptable to correlate certain findings in the discussion section, it is best to avoid overinterpreting the results.
  • If the research addresses more than one hypothesis, use sub-sections to describe the results. This prevents confusion and promotes understanding.
  • Ensure that negative results are included in this section, even if they do not support the research hypothesis.
  • Wherever possible, use illustrations like tables, figures, charts, or other visual representations to showcase the results of your research paper. Mention these illustrations in the text, but do not repeat the information that they convey.
  • For statistical data, it is adequate to highlight the tests and explain their results. The initial or raw data should not be mentioned in the results section of a research paper.

The results section of a research paper is usually the most impactful section because it draws the greatest attention. Regardless of the subject of your research paper, a well-written results section is capable of generating interest in your research.

For detailed information and assistance on writing the results of a research paper, refer to Elsevier Author Services.

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How to Write the Results/Findings Section in Research

how to make results in research paper

What is the research paper Results section and what does it do?

The Results section of a scientific research paper represents the core findings of a study derived from the methods applied to gather and analyze information. It presents these findings in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation from the author, setting up the reader for later interpretation and evaluation in the Discussion section. A major purpose of the Results section is to break down the data into sentences that show its significance to the research question(s).

The Results section appears third in the section sequence in most scientific papers. It follows the presentation of the Methods and Materials and is presented before the Discussion section —although the Results and Discussion are presented together in many journals. This section answers the basic question “What did you find in your research?”

What is included in the Results section?

The Results section should include the findings of your study and ONLY the findings of your study. The findings include:

  • Data presented in tables, charts, graphs, and other figures (may be placed into the text or on separate pages at the end of the manuscript)
  • A contextual analysis of this data explaining its meaning in sentence form
  • All data that corresponds to the central research question(s)
  • All secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.)

If the scope of the study is broad, or if you studied a variety of variables, or if the methodology used yields a wide range of different results, the author should present only those results that are most relevant to the research question stated in the Introduction section .

As a general rule, any information that does not present the direct findings or outcome of the study should be left out of this section. Unless the journal requests that authors combine the Results and Discussion sections, explanations and interpretations should be omitted from the Results.

How are the results organized?

The best way to organize your Results section is “logically.” One logical and clear method of organizing research results is to provide them alongside the research questions—within each research question, present the type of data that addresses that research question.

Let’s look at an example. Your research question is based on a survey among patients who were treated at a hospital and received postoperative care. Let’s say your first research question is:

results section of a research paper, figures

“What do hospital patients over age 55 think about postoperative care?”

This can actually be represented as a heading within your Results section, though it might be presented as a statement rather than a question:

Attitudes towards postoperative care in patients over the age of 55

Now present the results that address this specific research question first. In this case, perhaps a table illustrating data from a survey. Likert items can be included in this example. Tables can also present standard deviations, probabilities, correlation matrices, etc.

Following this, present a content analysis, in words, of one end of the spectrum of the survey or data table. In our example case, start with the POSITIVE survey responses regarding postoperative care, using descriptive phrases. For example:

“Sixty-five percent of patients over 55 responded positively to the question “ Are you satisfied with your hospital’s postoperative care ?” (Fig. 2)

Include other results such as subcategory analyses. The amount of textual description used will depend on how much interpretation of tables and figures is necessary and how many examples the reader needs in order to understand the significance of your research findings.

Next, present a content analysis of another part of the spectrum of the same research question, perhaps the NEGATIVE or NEUTRAL responses to the survey. For instance:

  “As Figure 1 shows, 15 out of 60 patients in Group A responded negatively to Question 2.”

After you have assessed the data in one figure and explained it sufficiently, move on to your next research question. For example:

  “How does patient satisfaction correspond to in-hospital improvements made to postoperative care?”

results section of a research paper, figures

This kind of data may be presented through a figure or set of figures (for instance, a paired T-test table).

Explain the data you present, here in a table, with a concise content analysis:

“The p-value for the comparison between the before and after groups of patients was .03% (Fig. 2), indicating that the greater the dissatisfaction among patients, the more frequent the improvements that were made to postoperative care.”

Let’s examine another example of a Results section from a study on plant tolerance to heavy metal stress . In the Introduction section, the aims of the study are presented as “determining the physiological and morphological responses of Allium cepa L. towards increased cadmium toxicity” and “evaluating its potential to accumulate the metal and its associated environmental consequences.” The Results section presents data showing how these aims are achieved in tables alongside a content analysis, beginning with an overview of the findings:

“Cadmium caused inhibition of root and leave elongation, with increasing effects at higher exposure doses (Fig. 1a-c).”

The figure containing this data is cited in parentheses. Note that this author has combined three graphs into one single figure. Separating the data into separate graphs focusing on specific aspects makes it easier for the reader to assess the findings, and consolidating this information into one figure saves space and makes it easy to locate the most relevant results.

results section of a research paper, figures

Following this overall summary, the relevant data in the tables is broken down into greater detail in text form in the Results section.

  • “Results on the bio-accumulation of cadmium were found to be the highest (17.5 mg kgG1) in the bulb, when the concentration of cadmium in the solution was 1×10G2 M and lowest (0.11 mg kgG1) in the leaves when the concentration was 1×10G3 M.”

Captioning and Referencing Tables and Figures

Tables and figures are central components of your Results section and you need to carefully think about the most effective way to use graphs and tables to present your findings . Therefore, it is crucial to know how to write strong figure captions and to refer to them within the text of the Results section.

The most important advice one can give here as well as throughout the paper is to check the requirements and standards of the journal to which you are submitting your work. Every journal has its own design and layout standards, which you can find in the author instructions on the target journal’s website. Perusing a journal’s published articles will also give you an idea of the proper number, size, and complexity of your figures.

Regardless of which format you use, the figures should be placed in the order they are referenced in the Results section and be as clear and easy to understand as possible. If there are multiple variables being considered (within one or more research questions), it can be a good idea to split these up into separate figures. Subsequently, these can be referenced and analyzed under separate headings and paragraphs in the text.

To create a caption, consider the research question being asked and change it into a phrase. For instance, if one question is “Which color did participants choose?”, the caption might be “Color choice by participant group.” Or in our last research paper example, where the question was “What is the concentration of cadmium in different parts of the onion after 14 days?” the caption reads:

 “Fig. 1(a-c): Mean concentration of Cd determined in (a) bulbs, (b) leaves, and (c) roots of onions after a 14-day period.”

Steps for Composing the Results Section

Because each study is unique, there is no one-size-fits-all approach when it comes to designing a strategy for structuring and writing the section of a research paper where findings are presented. The content and layout of this section will be determined by the specific area of research, the design of the study and its particular methodologies, and the guidelines of the target journal and its editors. However, the following steps can be used to compose the results of most scientific research studies and are essential for researchers who are new to preparing a manuscript for publication or who need a reminder of how to construct the Results section.

Step 1 : Consult the guidelines or instructions that the target journal or publisher provides authors and read research papers it has published, especially those with similar topics, methods, or results to your study.

  • The guidelines will generally outline specific requirements for the results or findings section, and the published articles will provide sound examples of successful approaches.
  • Note length limitations on restrictions on content. For instance, while many journals require the Results and Discussion sections to be separate, others do not—qualitative research papers often include results and interpretations in the same section (“Results and Discussion”).
  • Reading the aims and scope in the journal’s “ guide for authors ” section and understanding the interests of its readers will be invaluable in preparing to write the Results section.

Step 2 : Consider your research results in relation to the journal’s requirements and catalogue your results.

  • Focus on experimental results and other findings that are especially relevant to your research questions and objectives and include them even if they are unexpected or do not support your ideas and hypotheses.
  • Catalogue your findings—use subheadings to streamline and clarify your report. This will help you avoid excessive and peripheral details as you write and also help your reader understand and remember your findings. Create appendices that might interest specialists but prove too long or distracting for other readers.
  • Decide how you will structure of your results. You might match the order of the research questions and hypotheses to your results, or you could arrange them according to the order presented in the Methods section. A chronological order or even a hierarchy of importance or meaningful grouping of main themes or categories might prove effective. Consider your audience, evidence, and most importantly, the objectives of your research when choosing a structure for presenting your findings.

Step 3 : Design figures and tables to present and illustrate your data.

  • Tables and figures should be numbered according to the order in which they are mentioned in the main text of the paper.
  • Information in figures should be relatively self-explanatory (with the aid of captions), and their design should include all definitions and other information necessary for readers to understand the findings without reading all of the text.
  • Use tables and figures as a focal point to tell a clear and informative story about your research and avoid repeating information. But remember that while figures clarify and enhance the text, they cannot replace it.

Step 4 : Draft your Results section using the findings and figures you have organized.

  • The goal is to communicate this complex information as clearly and precisely as possible; precise and compact phrases and sentences are most effective.
  • In the opening paragraph of this section, restate your research questions or aims to focus the reader’s attention to what the results are trying to show. It is also a good idea to summarize key findings at the end of this section to create a logical transition to the interpretation and discussion that follows.
  • Try to write in the past tense and the active voice to relay the findings since the research has already been done and the agent is usually clear. This will ensure that your explanations are also clear and logical.
  • Make sure that any specialized terminology or abbreviation you have used here has been defined and clarified in the  Introduction section .

Step 5 : Review your draft; edit and revise until it reports results exactly as you would like to have them reported to your readers.

  • Double-check the accuracy and consistency of all the data, as well as all of the visual elements included.
  • Read your draft aloud to catch language errors (grammar, spelling, and mechanics), awkward phrases, and missing transitions.
  • Ensure that your results are presented in the best order to focus on objectives and prepare readers for interpretations, valuations, and recommendations in the Discussion section . Look back over the paper’s Introduction and background while anticipating the Discussion and Conclusion sections to ensure that the presentation of your results is consistent and effective.
  • Consider seeking additional guidance on your paper. Find additional readers to look over your Results section and see if it can be improved in any way. Peers, professors, or qualified experts can provide valuable insights.

One excellent option is to use a professional English proofreading and editing service  such as Wordvice, including our paper editing service . With hundreds of qualified editors from dozens of scientific fields, Wordvice has helped thousands of authors revise their manuscripts and get accepted into their target journals. Read more about the  proofreading and editing process  before proceeding with getting academic editing services and manuscript editing services for your manuscript.

As the representation of your study’s data output, the Results section presents the core information in your research paper. By writing with clarity and conciseness and by highlighting and explaining the crucial findings of their study, authors increase the impact and effectiveness of their research manuscripts.

For more articles and videos on writing your research manuscript, visit Wordvice’s Resources page.

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  • Writing a lab report
  • INTRODUCTION

Writing a "good" results section

Figures and Captions in Lab Reports

"Results Checklist" from: How to Write a Good Scientific Paper. Chris A. Mack. SPIE. 2018.

Additional tips for results sections.

  • LITERATURE CITED
  • Bibliography of guides to scientific writing and presenting
  • Peer Review
  • Presentations
  • Lab Report Writing Guides on the Web

This is the core of the paper. Don't start the results sections with methods you left out of the Materials and Methods section. You need to give an overall description of the experiments and present the data you found.

  • Factual statements supported by evidence. Short and sweet without excess words
  • Present representative data rather than endlessly repetitive data
  • Discuss variables only if they had an effect (positive or negative)
  • Use meaningful statistics
  • Avoid redundancy. If it is in the tables or captions you may not need to repeat it

A short article by Dr. Brett Couch and Dr. Deena Wassenberg, Biology Program, University of Minnesota

  • Present the results of the paper, in logical order, using tables and graphs as necessary.
  • Explain the results and show how they help to answer the research questions posed in the Introduction. Evidence does not explain itself; the results must be presented and then explained. 
  • Avoid: presenting results that are never discussed;  presenting results in chronological order rather than logical order; ignoring results that do not support the conclusions; 
  • Number tables and figures separately beginning with 1 (i.e. Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, etc.).
  • Do not attempt to evaluate the results in this section. Report only what you found; hold all discussion of the significance of the results for the Discussion section.
  • It is not necessary to describe every step of your statistical analyses. Scientists understand all about null hypotheses, rejection rules, and so forth and do not need to be reminded of them. Just say something like, "Honeybees did not use the flowers in proportion to their availability (X2 = 7.9, p<0.05, d.f.= 4, chi-square test)." Likewise, cite tables and figures without describing in detail how the data were manipulated. Explanations of this sort should appear in a legend or caption written on the same page as the figure or table.
  • You must refer in the text to each figure or table you include in your paper.
  • Tables generally should report summary-level data, such as means ± standard deviations, rather than all your raw data.  A long list of all your individual observations will mean much less than a few concise, easy-to-read tables or figures that bring out the main findings of your study.  
  • Only use a figure (graph) when the data lend themselves to a good visual representation.  Avoid using figures that show too many variables or trends at once, because they can be hard to understand.

From:  https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/imrad-results-discussion

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How to Write the Results Section of a Research Paper

Table of Contents

Laura Moro-Martin, freelance scientific writer on Kolabtree, provides expert tips on how to write the results section of a research paper . 

You have prepared a detailed −but concise− Methods section . Now it is time to write the Results of your research article. This part of the paper reports the findings of the experiments that you conducted to answer the research question(s). The Results can be considered the nucleus of a scientific article because they justify your claims, so you need to ensure that they are clear and understandable. You are telling a story −of course, a scientific story− and you want the readers to picture that same story in their minds. Let’s see how to avoid that your message ends up as in the ‘telephone game’.

The Results Section: Goals and Structure

Depending on the discipline, journal, and the nature of the study, the structure of the article can differ. We will focus on articles were the Results and Discussion appear in two separate sections, but it is possible in some cases to combine them.

In the Results section, you provide an overall description of the experiments and present the data that you obtained in a logical order, using tables and graphs as necessary. The Results section should simply state your findings without bias or interpretation. For example, in your analysis, you may have noticed a significant correlation between two variables never described before. It is correct to explain this in the Results section. However, speculation about the reasons for this correlation should go in the Discussion section of your paper.

In general, the Results section includes the following elements:

  • A very short introductory context that repeats the research question and helps to understand your results.
  • Report on data collection, recruitment, and/or participants. For example, in the case of clinical research, it is common to include a first table summarizing the demographic, clinical, and other relevant characteristics of the study participants.
  • A systematic description of the main findings in a logical order (generally following the order of the Methods section), highlighting the most relevant results.
  • Other important secondary findings, such as secondary outcomes or subgroup analyses (remember that you do not need to mention any single result).
  • Visual elements, such as, figures, charts, maps, tables, etc. that summarize and illustrate the findings. These elements should be cited in the text and numbered in order. Figures and tables should be able to stand on its own without the text, which means that the legend should include enough information to understand the non-textual element.

How to Write the Results Section of a Research Paper: Tips

The first tip −applicable to other sections of the paper too− is to check and apply the requirements of the journal to which you are submitting your work.

In the Results section, you need to write concisely and objectively, leaving interpretation for the Discussion section. As always, ‘learning from others’ can help you. Select a few papers from your field, including some published in your target journal, which you consider ‘good quality’ and well written. Read them carefully and observe how the Results section is structured, the type and amount of information provided, and how the findings are exposed in a logical order. Keep an eye on visual elements, such as figures, tables, and supplementary materials. Understand what works well in those papers to effectively convey their findings, and apply it to your writing.

Your Results section needs to describe the sequence of what you did and found, the frequency of occurrence of a particular event or result, the quantities of your observations, and the causality (i.e. the relationships or connections) between the events that you observed.

To organize the results, you can try to provide them alongside the research questions. In practice, this means that you will organize this section based on the sequence of tables and figures summarizing the results of your statistical analysis. In this way, it will be easier for readers to look at and understand your findings. You need to report your statistical findings, without describing every step of your statistical analysis. Tables and figures generally report summary-level data (for example, means and standard deviations), rather than all the raw data.

Following, you can prepare the summary text to support those visual elements. You need not only to present but also to explain your findings, showing how they help to address the research question(s) and how they align with the objectives that you presented in the Introduction . Keep in mind that results do not speak for themselves, so if you do not describe them in words, the reader may perceive the findings differently from you. Build coherence along this section using goal statements and explicit reasoning (guide the reader through your reasoning, including sentences of this type: ‘In order to…, we performed….’; ‘In view of this result, we ….’, etc.).

In summary, the general steps for writing the Results section of a research article are:

  • Check the guidelines of your target journal and read articles that it has published in similar topics to your study.
  • Catalogue your findings in relation to the journal requirements, and design figures and tables to organize your data.
  • Write the Results section following the order of figures and tables.
  • Edit and revise your draft and seek additional input from colleagues or experts.

The Style of the Results Section

‘If you are out to describe the truth, leave elegance to the tailor’, Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann said. Although the scope of the Results section −and of scientific papers in general− is eminently functional, this does not mean that you cannot write well. Try to improve the rhythm to move the reader along, use transitions and connectors between different sections and paragraphs, and dedicate time to revise your writing.

The Results section should be written in the past tense. Although writing in the passive voice may be tempting, the use of the active voice makes the action much more visualizable. The passive voice weakens the power of language and increases the number of words needed to say the same thing, so we recommend using the active voice as much as possible. Another tip to make your language visualizable and reduce sentence length is the use of verbal phrases instead of long nouns. For example, instead of writing ‘As shown in Table 1, there was a significant increase in gene expression’, you can say ‘As shown in Table 1, gene expression increased significantly’.

Get a Second (And Even Third) Opinion

Writing a scientific article is not an individual work. Take advantage of your co-authors by making them check the Results section and adding their comments and suggestions. Not only that, but an external opinion will help you to identify misinterpretations or errors. Ask a colleague that is not directly involved in the work to review your Results and then try to evaluate what your colleague did or did not understand. If needed, seek additional help from a qualified expert.

Common Errors to Avoid While Writing the Results Section

Several mistakes frequently occur when you write the Results section of a research paper. Here we have collected a few examples:

  • Including raw results and/or endlessly repetitive data. You do not need to present every single number and calculation, but a summary of the results. If relevant, raw data can be included in supplementary materials.
  • Including redundant information. If data are contained in the tables or figures, you do not need to repeat all of them in the Results section. You will have the opportunity to highlight the most relevant results in the Discussion .
  • Repeating background information or methods , or introducing several sentences of introductory information (if you feel that more background information is necessary to present a result, consider inserting that information in the Introduction ).
  • Results and Methods do not match . You need to explain the methodology used to obtain all the experimental observations.
  • Ignoring negative results or results that do not support the conclusions. In addition to posing potential ethical concerns on your work, reviewers will not like it. You need to mention all relevant findings, even if they failed to support your predictions or hypotheses. Negative results are useful and will guide future studies on the topic. Provide your interpretation for negative results in the Discussion .
  • Discussing or interpreting the results . Leave that for the Discussion , unless your target journal allows preparing one section combining Results and Discussion .
  • Errors in figures/tables are varied and common . Examples of errors include using an excessive number of figures/tables (it is a good idea to select the most relevant ones and move the rest to supplementary materials), very complex figures/tables (hard-to-read figures with many subfigures or enormous tables may confuse your readers; think how these elements will be visualized in the final format of the article), difficult to interpret figures/tables (cryptic abbreviations; inadequate use of colors, axis, scales, symbols, etc.), and figures/tables that are not self-standing (figures/tables require a caption, all abbreviations used need to be explained in the legend or a footnote, and statistical tests applied are frequently reported). Do not include tables and figures that are not mentioned in the body text of your Results .

In summary, the Results section is the nucleus of your paper that justifies your claims. Take time to adequately organize it and prepare understandable figures and tables to convey your message to the reader. Good writing!

  • The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. https://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWsections.html – methods (accessed on 30th September 2020)
  • Organizing Academic Research Papers: 7. The Results. https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185931 (accessed on 30th September 2020)
  • Kendra Cherry. How to Write an APA Results Section. https://www.verywellmind.com/how-to-write-a-results-section-2795727 (accessed on 30th September 2020)
  • Chapin Rodríguez. Empowering your scientific language by making it “visualizable”. http://creaducate.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/tipsheet36_visualizable-lang-tip-sheet.pdf (accessed on 1st October 2020)
  • IMRaD Results Discussion. https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/imrad-results-discussion (accessed on 1st October 2020)
  • Writing the Results Section for a Research Paper. https://wordvice.com/writing-the-results-section-for-a-research-paper/ (accessed on 1st October 2020)
  • Scott L. Montgomery. The Chicago Guide to Communicating Science , Chapter 9. Second edition, The University of Chicago Press, 2017.
  • Hilary Glasman-Deal . Science Research Writing for Non-Native Speakers of English, Unit 2 . Imperial College Press, 2010.

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Ramya Sriram manages digital content and communications at Kolabtree (kolabtree.com), the world's largest freelancing platform for scientists. She has over a decade of experience in publishing, advertising and digital content creation.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

  • 7. The Results
  • Purpose of Guide
  • Design Flaws to Avoid
  • Independent and Dependent Variables
  • Glossary of Research Terms
  • Reading Research Effectively
  • Narrowing a Topic Idea
  • Broadening a Topic Idea
  • Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
  • Academic Writing Style
  • Choosing a Title
  • Making an Outline
  • Paragraph Development
  • Research Process Video Series
  • Executive Summary
  • The C.A.R.S. Model
  • Background Information
  • The Research Problem/Question
  • Theoretical Framework
  • Citation Tracking
  • Content Alert Services
  • Evaluating Sources
  • Primary Sources
  • Secondary Sources
  • Tiertiary Sources
  • Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
  • Qualitative Methods
  • Quantitative Methods
  • Insiderness
  • Using Non-Textual Elements
  • Limitations of the Study
  • Common Grammar Mistakes
  • Writing Concisely
  • Avoiding Plagiarism
  • Footnotes or Endnotes?
  • Further Readings
  • Generative AI and Writing
  • USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
  • Bibliography

The results section is where you report the findings of your study based upon the methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather information. The results section should state the findings of the research arranged in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation. A section describing results should be particularly detailed if your paper includes data generated from your own research.

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070.

Importance of a Good Results Section

When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything . Findings can only confirm or reject the hypothesis underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.

The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported . Be concise. Use non-textual elements appropriately, such as figures and tables, to present findings more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish information that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other content that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data that has not been summarized should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.

Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question . The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good strategy is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper that follows].

Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Brett, Paul. "A Genre Analysis of the Results Section of Sociology Articles." English for Specific Speakers 13 (1994): 47-59; Go to English for Specific Purposes on ScienceDirect;Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit; "Reporting Findings." In Making Sense of Social Research Malcolm Williams, editor. (London;: SAGE Publications, 2003) pp. 188-207.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Organization and Approach

For most research papers in the social and behavioral sciences, there are two possible ways of organizing the results . Both approaches are appropriate in how you report your findings, but use only one approach.

  • Present a synopsis of the results followed by an explanation of key findings . This approach can be used to highlight important findings. For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is appropriate to highlight this finding in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening belongs in the discussion section of your paper.
  • Present a result and then explain it, before presenting the next result then explaining it, and so on, then end with an overall synopsis . This is the preferred approach if you have multiple results of equal significance. It is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it is helpful to provide a brief conclusion that ties each of the findings together and provides a narrative bridge to the discussion section of the your paper.

NOTE :   Just as the literature review should be arranged under conceptual categories rather than systematically describing each source, you should also organize your findings under key themes related to addressing the research problem. This can be done under either format noted above [i.e., a thorough explanation of the key results or a sequential, thematic description and explanation of each finding].

II.  Content

In general, the content of your results section should include the following:

  • Introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem underpinning your study . This is useful in re-orientating the reader's focus back to the research problem after having read a review of the literature and your explanation of the methods used for gathering and analyzing information.
  • Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate key findings, if appropriate . Rather than relying entirely on descriptive text, consider how your findings can be presented visually. This is a helpful way of condensing a lot of data into one place that can then be referred to in the text. Consider referring to appendices if there is a lot of non-textual elements.
  • A systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation . Not all results that emerge from the methodology used to gather information may be related to answering the " So What? " question. Do not confuse observations with interpretations; observations in this context refers to highlighting important findings you discovered through a process of reviewing prior literature and gathering data.
  • The page length of your results section is guided by the amount and types of data to be reported . However, focus on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem. It is not uncommon to have unanticipated results that are not relevant to answering the research question. This is not to say that you don't acknowledge tangential findings and, in fact, can be referred to as areas for further research in the conclusion of your paper. However, spending time in the results section describing tangential findings clutters your overall results section and distracts the reader.
  • A short paragraph that concludes the results section by synthesizing the key findings of the study . Highlight the most important findings you want readers to remember as they transition into the discussion section. This is particularly important if, for example, there are many results to report, the findings are complicated or unanticipated, or they are impactful or actionable in some way [i.e., able to be pursued in a feasible way applied to practice].

NOTE:   Always use the past tense when referring to your study's findings. Reference to findings should always be described as having already happened because the method used to gather the information has been completed.

III.  Problems to Avoid

When writing the results section, avoid doing the following :

  • Discussing or interpreting your results . Save this for the discussion section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to the work of Smith [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
  • Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings. This should have been done in your introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need for additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Writing up research is rarely a linear process. Always revise your introduction as needed.
  • Ignoring negative results . A negative result generally refers to a finding that does not support the underlying assumptions of your study. Do not ignore them. Document these findings and then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, can give you an opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be hesitant to highlight them.
  • Including raw data or intermediate calculations . Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.
  • Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings . Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater than other variables..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...." Subjective modifiers should be explained in the discussion section of the paper [i.e., why did one variable appear greater? Or, how does the finding demonstrate a promising trend?].
  • Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once . If you want to highlight a particular finding, it is appropriate to do so in the results section. However, you should emphasize its significance in relation to addressing the research problem in the discussion section. Do not repeat it in your results section because you can do that in the conclusion of your paper.
  • Confusing figures with tables . Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. Don't call a chart an illustration or a figure a table. If you are not sure, go here .

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070; Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008;  Caprette, David R. Writing Research Papers. Experimental Biosciences Resources. Rice University; Hancock, Dawson R. and Bob Algozzine. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers . 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 2011; Introduction to Nursing Research: Reporting Research Findings. Nursing Research: Open Access Nursing Research and Review Articles. (January 4, 2012); Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit ; Ng, K. H. and W. C. Peh. "Writing the Results." Singapore Medical Journal 49 (2008): 967-968; Reporting Research Findings. Wilder Research, in partnership with the Minnesota Department of Human Services. (February 2009); Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Results. Thesis Writing in the Sciences. Course Syllabus. University of Florida.

Writing Tip

Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?

It's not unusual to find articles in scholarly social science journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings with a discussion about their significance and implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing research papers, consider creating two distinct sections for each section in your paper as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret the information and answer the "So What?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you can consider melding the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.

Driscoll, Dana Lynn and Aleksandra Kasztalska. Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

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Guide to Writing the Results and Discussion Sections of a Scientific Article

A quality research paper has both the qualities of in-depth research and good writing ( Bordage, 2001 ). In addition, a research paper must be clear, concise, and effective when presenting the information in an organized structure with a logical manner ( Sandercock, 2013 ).

In this article, we will take a closer look at the results and discussion section. Composing each of these carefully with sufficient data and well-constructed arguments can help improve your paper overall.

Guide to writing a science research manuscript e-book download

The results section of your research paper contains a description about the main findings of your research, whereas the discussion section interprets the results for readers and provides the significance of the findings. The discussion should not repeat the results.

Let’s dive in a little deeper about how to properly, and clearly organize each part.

How to Organize the Results Section

Since your results follow your methods, you’ll want to provide information about what you discovered from the methods you used, such as your research data. In other words, what were the outcomes of the methods you used?

You may also include information about the measurement of your data, variables, treatments, and statistical analyses.

To start, organize your research data based on how important those are in relation to your research questions. This section should focus on showing major results that support or reject your research hypothesis. Include your least important data as supplemental materials when submitting to the journal.

The next step is to prioritize your research data based on importance – focusing heavily on the information that directly relates to your research questions using the subheadings.

The organization of the subheadings for the results section usually mirrors the methods section. It should follow a logical and chronological order.

Subheading organization

Subheadings within your results section are primarily going to detail major findings within each important experiment. And the first paragraph of your results section should be dedicated to your main findings (findings that answer your overall research question and lead to your conclusion) (Hofmann, 2013).

In the book “Writing in the Biological Sciences,” author Angelika Hofmann recommends you structure your results subsection paragraphs as follows:

  • Experimental purpose
  • Interpretation

Each subheading may contain a combination of ( Bahadoran, 2019 ; Hofmann, 2013, pg. 62-63):

  • Text: to explain about the research data
  • Figures: to display the research data and to show trends or relationships, for examples using graphs or gel pictures.
  • Tables: to represent a large data and exact value

Decide on the best way to present your data — in the form of text, figures or tables (Hofmann, 2013).

Data or Results?

Sometimes we get confused about how to differentiate between data and results . Data are information (facts or numbers) that you collected from your research ( Bahadoran, 2019 ).

Research data definition

Whereas, results are the texts presenting the meaning of your research data ( Bahadoran, 2019 ).

Result definition

One mistake that some authors often make is to use text to direct the reader to find a specific table or figure without further explanation. This can confuse readers when they interpret data completely different from what the authors had in mind. So, you should briefly explain your data to make your information clear for the readers.

Common Elements in Figures and Tables

Figures and tables present information about your research data visually. The use of these visual elements is necessary so readers can summarize, compare, and interpret large data at a glance. You can use graphs or figures to compare groups or patterns. Whereas, tables are ideal to present large quantities of data and exact values.

Several components are needed to create your figures and tables. These elements are important to sort your data based on groups (or treatments). It will be easier for the readers to see the similarities and differences among the groups.

When presenting your research data in the form of figures and tables, organize your data based on the steps of the research leading you into a conclusion.

Common elements of the figures (Bahadoran, 2019):

  • Figure number
  • Figure title
  • Figure legend (for example a brief title, experimental/statistical information, or definition of symbols).

Figure example

Tables in the result section may contain several elements (Bahadoran, 2019):

  • Table number
  • Table title
  • Row headings (for example groups)
  • Column headings
  • Row subheadings (for example categories or groups)
  • Column subheadings (for example categories or variables)
  • Footnotes (for example statistical analyses)

Table example

Tips to Write the Results Section

  • Direct the reader to the research data and explain the meaning of the data.
  • Avoid using a repetitive sentence structure to explain a new set of data.
  • Write and highlight important findings in your results.
  • Use the same order as the subheadings of the methods section.
  • Match the results with the research questions from the introduction. Your results should answer your research questions.
  • Be sure to mention the figures and tables in the body of your text.
  • Make sure there is no mismatch between the table number or the figure number in text and in figure/tables.
  • Only present data that support the significance of your study. You can provide additional data in tables and figures as supplementary material.

How to Organize the Discussion Section

It’s not enough to use figures and tables in your results section to convince your readers about the importance of your findings. You need to support your results section by providing more explanation in the discussion section about what you found.

In the discussion section, based on your findings, you defend the answers to your research questions and create arguments to support your conclusions.

Below is a list of questions to guide you when organizing the structure of your discussion section ( Viera et al ., 2018 ):

  • What experiments did you conduct and what were the results?
  • What do the results mean?
  • What were the important results from your study?
  • How did the results answer your research questions?
  • Did your results support your hypothesis or reject your hypothesis?
  • What are the variables or factors that might affect your results?
  • What were the strengths and limitations of your study?
  • What other published works support your findings?
  • What other published works contradict your findings?
  • What possible factors might cause your findings different from other findings?
  • What is the significance of your research?
  • What are new research questions to explore based on your findings?

Organizing the Discussion Section

The structure of the discussion section may be different from one paper to another, but it commonly has a beginning, middle-, and end- to the section.

Discussion section

One way to organize the structure of the discussion section is by dividing it into three parts (Ghasemi, 2019):

  • The beginning: The first sentence of the first paragraph should state the importance and the new findings of your research. The first paragraph may also include answers to your research questions mentioned in your introduction section.
  • The middle: The middle should contain the interpretations of the results to defend your answers, the strength of the study, the limitations of the study, and an update literature review that validates your findings.
  • The end: The end concludes the study and the significance of your research.

Another possible way to organize the discussion section was proposed by Michael Docherty in British Medical Journal: is by using this structure ( Docherty, 1999 ):

  • Discussion of important findings
  • Comparison of your results with other published works
  • Include the strengths and limitations of the study
  • Conclusion and possible implications of your study, including the significance of your study – address why and how is it meaningful
  • Future research questions based on your findings

Finally, a last option is structuring your discussion this way (Hofmann, 2013, pg. 104):

  • First Paragraph: Provide an interpretation based on your key findings. Then support your interpretation with evidence.
  • Secondary results
  • Limitations
  • Unexpected findings
  • Comparisons to previous publications
  • Last Paragraph: The last paragraph should provide a summarization (conclusion) along with detailing the significance, implications and potential next steps.

Remember, at the heart of the discussion section is presenting an interpretation of your major findings.

Tips to Write the Discussion Section

  • Highlight the significance of your findings
  • Mention how the study will fill a gap in knowledge.
  • Indicate the implication of your research.
  • Avoid generalizing, misinterpreting your results, drawing a conclusion with no supportive findings from your results.

Aggarwal, R., & Sahni, P. (2018). The Results Section. In Reporting and Publishing Research in the Biomedical Sciences (pp. 21-38): Springer.

Bahadoran, Z., Mirmiran, P., Zadeh-Vakili, A., Hosseinpanah, F., & Ghasemi, A. (2019). The principles of biomedical scientific writing: Results. International journal of endocrinology and metabolism, 17(2).

Bordage, G. (2001). Reasons reviewers reject and accept manuscripts: the strengths and weaknesses in medical education reports. Academic medicine, 76(9), 889-896.

Cals, J. W., & Kotz, D. (2013). Effective writing and publishing scientific papers, part VI: discussion. Journal of clinical epidemiology, 66(10), 1064.

Docherty, M., & Smith, R. (1999). The case for structuring the discussion of scientific papers: Much the same as that for structuring abstracts. In: British Medical Journal Publishing Group.

Faber, J. (2017). Writing scientific manuscripts: most common mistakes. Dental press journal of orthodontics, 22(5), 113-117.

Fletcher, R. H., & Fletcher, S. W. (2018). The discussion section. In Reporting and Publishing Research in the Biomedical Sciences (pp. 39-48): Springer.

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how to make results in research paper

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The Quintessence of Basic and Clinical Research and Scientific Publishing pp 717–731 Cite as

How to Present Results in a Research Paper

  • Aparna Mukherjee 4 ,
  • Gunjan Kumar 4 &
  • Rakesh Lodha 5  
  • First Online: 01 October 2023

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The results section is the core of a research manuscript where the study data and analyses are presented in an organized, uncluttered manner such that the reader can easily understand and interpret the findings. This section is completely factual; there is no place for opinions or explanations from the authors. The results should correspond to the objectives of the study in an orderly manner. Self-explanatory tables and figures add value to this section and make data presentation more convenient and appealing. The results presented in this section should have a link with both the preceding methods section and the following discussion section. A well-written, articulate results section lends clarity and credibility to the research paper and the study as a whole. This chapter provides an overview and important pointers to effective drafting of the results section in a research manuscript and also in theses.

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Acknowledgments

The book chapter is derived in part from our article “Mukherjee A, Lodha R. Writing the Results. Indian Pediatr. 2016 May 8;53(5):409-15.” We thank the Editor-in-Chief of the journal “Indian Pediatrics” for the permission for the same.

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Mukherjee, A., Kumar, G., Lodha, R. (2023). How to Present Results in a Research Paper. In: Jagadeesh, G., Balakumar, P., Senatore, F. (eds) The Quintessence of Basic and Clinical Research and Scientific Publishing. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1284-1_44

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Research Paper Writing Guides

Research Paper Results Section

Last updated on: Jan 15, 2024

How To Write The Results Section of A Research Paper | Steps & Tips

By: Donna C.

Reviewed By: Rylee W.

Published on: Jan 9, 2024

How To Write The Results Section of A Research Paper

Many researchers find themselves at a crossroads when it comes to crafting the results section of their research papers. 

It's not just about displaying data; it's about creating a narrative that captivates readers and communicates the significance of your findings.

How do you ensure your data is not just presented but truly understood by your audience? 

In this comprehensive guide, we will walk you through the process of writing an effective results section that transforms your research paper. 

Whether you're struggling with data interpretation or seeking ways to make your findings resonate, our step-by-step guide will help you create outstanding result sections.

Let’s get started!

How To Write The Results Section of A Research Paper

On this Page

What is the Result Section of a Research Paper? 

The results section of a research paper is a critical component that presents the key findings derived from the study. 

It serves as a factual and objective account of the data collected during the research process. 

In this section, researchers report their observations and measurements of the hypothesis, often utilizing tables, graphs, or statistical measures to convey the information effectively.

What Does the Results Section of a Research Paper Include?

In the results section, you show off what you found in your research. Here's a quick look at what it includes:

  • Data Presentation: Display your information using figures and tables.
  • Descriptive Statistics: Use numbers like average and middle values to summarize your data.
  • What It Means: Explain what your results say and if there are any patterns.
  • Correlations and Relationships: Look for a correlation between two variables or different factors and talk about them.
  • Limitations: Mention any problems or limits your study might have.
  • Compare with Others: See how your findings relate to what others have discovered before.

How To Write The Results Section of A Research Paper Step-by-Step

Crafting an effective Results section is a crucial aspect of any research paper. Follow these steps to ensure your findings are presented clearly and concisely:

Step 1: Organize Your Data

Organizing your data is a critical first step in the Results section of a research paper. This involves structuring your raw data in a way that is clear, logical, and easily digestible for your readers.

  • Raw Data Arrangement: Group similar data logically, such as by time or experimental conditions.
  • Visual Representation: Use tables, graphs, or charts for clarity; pick the format that suits your data best.
  • Clarity in Design: Ensure visuals are clear with labels, colors, and consistent formatting.
  • Quick Understanding: Aim for simplicity; make sure readers can grasp the main points at a glance.
  • Consistency: Keep a consistent writing style across visuals for a cohesive presentation.

Step 2: Start With Descriptive Statistics 

In this section, dive into the specifics of your data through systematic description, providing a snapshot that captures both central tendencies and variability. 

  • Calculate the Mean: Find the average value of your data points, offering a central measure indicative of the overall trend.
  • Explore the Median: Identify the middle point of your data, a robust measure that remains unaffected by extreme values.
  • Assess Standard Deviation: Understand the dispersion of your data around the mean, highlighting the degree of variability.

Step 3: Visualize Your Data

Enhance understanding by incorporating visual representations. Graphs and charts can convey trends and patterns effectively, providing readers with a more intuitive grasp of your results.

  • Select Appropriate Visuals: Choose the right type of graph or chart based on your data—bar charts for comparisons, line graphs for trends, and pie charts for proportions.
  • Ensure Clarity: Design visuals with clear labels, legible fonts, and distinctive colors to facilitate easy interpretation.
  • Highlight Trends: Emphasize significant trends or patterns in your data, guiding readers to key insights.

Step 4: Inferential Statistics

If applicable, apply inferential statistics to analyze the significance of your findings. Use tests to show statistically meaningful positive and negative results.

  • Select Relevant Tests: Choose appropriate statistical tests based on your research question—ANOVA for multiple groups, t-tests for two groups, etc.
  • Establish Significance Levels: Define significance levels (usually p-values) to determine whether observed differences are likely due to chance.

Step 5: Provide Textual Explanations 

Accompany visual elements with clear and concise textual explanations. Explain the significance of observed trends or patterns in your visuals, ensuring readers grasp their relevance to your research problem.

Acknowledge and explain any unexpected results, offering insights into potential factors or nuances that may have influenced the outcomes.

Always tie your explanations back to your research question, emphasizing how each finding contributes to the broader understanding of the results of your study.

Step 6: Compare with Previous Studies

By discussing similarities, differences, or advancements in knowledge, you can highlight the uniqueness of your contribution to the field.

Summarize relevant findings from the literature review and review articles related to your research question. Compare or contrast your results with those of previous studies. Discuss similarities and differences, emphasizing the novel aspects of your research.

In the end, identify any contributions your study makes to advancing knowledge in the field. Highlight how your findings build upon or challenge existing understandings.

Step 7: Address Limitations

Acknowledge and address any limitations in your study. Discuss how these limitations may have influenced your results, maintaining transparency about the potential impact on the study's outcomes.

Lastly, propose avenues for future research that could address the identified limitations, offering insights for researchers interested in building upon your study.

By following these steps, you can engage your audience, providing a comprehensive and insightful view of your research findings.

Results Section for Quantitative Research

When crafting the Results section for quantitative research, there are several key qualities that can enhance the clarity, validity, and overall impact of your presentation. 

Here are the main qualities to consider for crafting a results section for quantitative research:

  • Comprehensive Descriptions: Clearly state what each statistical test or measure represents and how it contributes to your study. 
  • Appropriate Visual Elements: Ensure that these visuals are accurately labeled, easy to interpret, and directly support the points made in the text.
  • Inclusion of Key Statistical Measures: Include essential statistical measures relevant to your study, such as means, standard deviations, p-values, confidence intervals, and effect sizes. 
  • Concise Interpretation: Highlight the most salient patterns or trends and their implications. Save in-depth interpretation and discussion for the dedicated Discussion section.

Here is an example for quantitative results of a research paper:

Results Section Of A Quantitative Research Paper

Results Section for Qualitative Research

Writing the Results section for qualitative research involves presenting and interpreting the data collected through methods such as interviews, observations, or content analysis. 

Here are the main qualities of a results section of qualitative research:

  • Participant Voice: Prioritize the voices of the participants. Include direct quotes to give the participants a presence in the Results section.
  • Negotiation of Bias: Acknowledge and discuss the potential biases and subjectivities that may have influenced the interpretation of the data.
  • Negative Instances:  Discuss instances where the data deviate from the identified themes and explore the reasons behind these variations.
  • Comparison and Contrast: If applicable, compare and contrast themes across different participant groups, contexts, or time points. This adds depth to the analysis and helps in identifying patterns or variations within the data.
  • Transition to Discussion: Conclude the Results section with a seamless transition to the Discussion section. Briefly summarize the main findings and indicate how they will be further explored and interpreted in the subsequent section.

Here is an example for qualitative results of a research paper:

Results Section Of A Qualitative Research Paper

Result Section Examples 

Here are some examples for learning how to write the results section of a research paper.

Results Section Of A Research Paper Example

Summary Of Results In Research Example

Research Findings Example Pdf

How To Write The Results Section of A Research Paper APA

Mistakes to Avoid When Writing Results Section of Research Paper

Understanding the Results section of a research paper needs carefulness and attention to detail. To present your findings well, avoid these common mistakes:

Wrapping up, mastering the results section demands precision and clarity. By sidestepping common mistakes, you enhance the credibility of your findings. 

Keep it simple, stay focused on your main question, and be transparent about limitations. 

But still, if you think this work is too much for you, turn to the best paper writing service online . 

We are experts who can craft an outstanding research paper as well as different sections of your research paper. 

So, let experts handle all your academic affairs!

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between the results and the discussion section.

Results present raw data and findings, while Discussion interprets and contextualizes results, providing explanations and exploring broader significance. Results are about "what," Discussion is about "why" and "what it means."

How Long Should the Results Section a Research Paper Be?

In general, the ideal length of this section is often several pages long, but there's no fixed rule. It's essential to balance thoroughness with conciseness. 

Donna C.

Donna writes on a broad range of topics, but she is mostly passionate about social issues, current events, and human-interest stories. She has received high praise for her writing from both colleagues and readers alike. Donna is known in her field for creating content that is not only professional but also captivating.

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Results Section Of A Research Paper: How To Write It Properly

results section of a research paper

The results section of a research paper refers to the part that represents the study’s core findings from the methods that the researcher used to collect and analyze data. This section presents the results logically without interpretation or bias from the author.

Thus, this part of a research paper sets up the read for evaluation and analysis of the findings in the discussion section. Essentially, this section breaks down the information into several sentences, showing its importance to the research question. Writing results section in a research paper entails summarizing the gathered data and the performed statistical analysis. That way, the author presents or reports the results without subjective interpretation.

What Is The Results Section Of A Research Paper?

In its simplest definition, a research paper results section is where the researcher reports the findings of a study based on the applied methodology for gathering information. It’s the part where the author states the research findings in a logical sequence without interpreting them. If the research paper has data from actual research, this section should feature a detailed description of the results.

When writing a dissertation, a thesis, or any other academic paper, the result section should come third in sections’ sequence. It should follow the Methods and Materials presentation and the Discussion section comes after it. But most scientific papers present the Results and Discussion sections together. However, the results section answers the question, “What did your research uncover?”

Ideally, this section allows you to report findings in research paper, creating the basis for sufficiently justified conclusions. After writing the study findings in the results section, you interpret them in the subsequent discussion part. Therefore, your results section should report information that will justify your claims. That way, you can look back on the results section when writing the discussion part to ensure that your report supports your conclusions.

What Goes in the Results Section of a Research Paper?

This section should present results in research paper. The findings part of a research paper can differ in structure depending on the study, discipline, and journal. Nevertheless, the results section presents a description of the experiment while presenting the research results. When writing this part of your research paper, you can use graphs and tables if necessary.

However, state the findings without interpreting them. For instance, you can find a correlation between variables when analyzing data. In that case, your results section can explain this correlation without speculating about the causes of this correlation.

Here’s what to include in the results section of research paper:

A brief introductory of the context, repeating the research questions to help the readers understand the results A report about information collection, participants, and recruitment: for instance, you can include a demographic summary with the participants’ characteristics A systematic findings’ description, with a logical presentation highlighting relevant and crucial results A contextual data analysis explaining the meaning in sentences Information corresponding to the primary research questions Secondary findings like subgroup analysis and secondary outcomes Visual elements like charts, figures, tables, and maps, illustrating and summarizing the findings

Ensure that your results section cites and numbers visual elements in an orderly manner. Every table or figure should stand alone without text. That means visual elements should have adequate non-textual content to enable the audiences to understand their meanings.

If your study has a broad scope, several variables, or used methodologies that yielded different results, state the most relevant results only based on the research question you presented in your Introduction section.

The general rule is to leave out any data that doesn’t present your study’s direct outcome or findings. Unless the professor, advisor, university faulty, or your target journal requests you to combine the Results and Discussion sections, omit the interpretations and explanations of the results in this section.

How Long Should A Results Section Be?

The findings section of a research paper ranges between two and three pages, with tables, text, and figures. In most cases, universities and journals insist that this section shouldn’t exceed 1,000 words over four to nine paragraphs, usually with no references.

But a good findings section occupies 5% of the entire paper. For instance, this section should have 500 words if a dissertation has 10,000 words. If the educator didn’t specify the number of words to include in this chapter, use the data you collect to determine its length. Nevertheless, be as concise as possible by featuring only relevant results that answer your research question.

How To Write Results Section Of Research Paper

Perhaps, you have completed researching and writing the preceding sections, and you’re now wondering how to write results. By the time you’re composing this section, you already have findings or answers to your research questions. However, you don’t even know how to start a results section. And your search for guidelines landed you on this page.

Well, every research project is different and unique. That’s why researchers use different strategies when writing this section of their research papers. The scientific or academic discipline, specialization field, target journal, and the author are factors influencing how you write this section. Nevertheless, there’s a general way of writing this section, although it might differ slightly between disciplines. Here’s how to write results section in a research paper.

Check the instructions or guidelines. Check their instructions or guidelines first, whether you’re writing the research paper as part of your coursework or for an academic journal. These guidelines outline the requirements for presenting results in research papers. Also, check the published articles to know how to approach this section. When reviewing the procedures, check content restrictions and length. Essentially, learn everything you can about this section from the instructions or guidelines before you start writing. Reflect on your research findings. With instructions and guidelines in mind, reflect on your research findings to determine how to present them in your research paper. Decide on the best way to show the results so that they can answer the research question. Also, strive to clarify and streamline your report, especially with a complex and lengthy results section. You can use subheadings to avoid peripheral and excessive details. Additionally, consider breaking down the content to make it easy for the readers to understand or remember. Your hypothesis, research question, or methodologies might influence the structure of the findings sections. Nevertheless, a hierarchy of importance, chronological order, or meaningful grouping of categories or themes can be an effective way of presenting your findings. Design your visual presentations. Visual presentations improve the textual report of the research findings. Therefore, decide on the figures and styles to use in your tables, graphs, photos, and maps. However, check the instructions and guidelines of your faculty or journal to determine the visual aids you can use. Also, check what the guidelines say about their formats and design elements. Ideally, number the figures and tables according to their mention in the text. Additionally, your figures and tables should be self-explanatory. Write your findings section. Writing the results section of a research paper entails communicating the information you gathered from your study. Ideally, be as objective and factual as possible. If you gathered complex information, try to simplify and present it accurately, precisely, and clearly. Therefore, use well-structured sentences instead of complex expressions and phrases. Also, use an active voice and past tense since you’ve already done the research. Additionally, use correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Take your time to present the findings in the best way possible to focus your readers on your study objectives while preparing them for the coming speculations, interpretations, and recommendations. Edit Your Findings Section. Once you’ve written the results part of your paper, please go through it to ensure that you’ve presented your study findings in the best way possible. Make sure that the content of this section is factual, accurate, and without errors. You’ve taken a considerable amount of time to compose the results scientific paper audiences will find interesting to read. Therefore, take a moment to go through the draft and eliminate all errors.

Practical Tips on How to Write a Results Section of a Research Paper

The results part of a research paper aims to present the key findings objectively in a logical and orderly sequence using text and illustrative materials. A common mistake that many authors make is confusing the information in the discussion and the results sections. To avoid this, focus on presenting your research findings without interpreting them or speculating about them.

The following tips on how to write a results section should make this task easier for you:

Summarize your study results: Instead of reporting the findings in full detail, summarize them. That way, you can develop an overview of the results. Present relevant findings only: Don’t report everything you found during your research. Instead, present pertinent information only. That means taking time to analyze your results to know what your audiences want to know. Report statistical findings: When writing this section, assume that the audiences understand statistical concepts. Therefore, don’t try to explain the nitty-gritty in this section. Remember that your work is to report your study’s findings in this section. Be objective and concise: You can interpret the findings in the discussion sections. Therefore, focus on presenting the results objectively and concisely in this section. Use the suitable format: Use the correct style to present the findings depending on your study field.

Get Professional Help with the Research Section

Maybe you’re pursuing your graduate or undergraduate studies but cannot write the results part of your paper. Perhaps, you’re done researching and analyzing information, but this section proves too tricky for you to write. Well, you’re not alone because many students across the world struggle to present their research findings.

Luckily, our highly educated, talented, and experienced writers are always ready to assist such learners. If you are stuck with the results part of your paper, our professionals can help you . We offer high-quality, custom writing help online. We’re a reliable team of experts with a sterling reputation for providing comprehensive assistance to college, high school, and university learners. We deliver highly informative academic papers after conducting extensive and in-depth research. Contact us saying something like, “please do my thesis” to get quality help with your paper!

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How to Write the Results Section of a Research Paper

This article is part of an ongoing series on academic writing help of scholarly articles. Previous parts explored how to write an introduction for a research paper , literature review outline and format , and how to write a research methodology .

Academics and researchers publish their scholarly articles to show the results they have obtained using gathered or collected data. Research papers present the process of testing hypotheses or models and how their findings help shape or advance a particular research topic. Thus, the ‘Results’ section is essential in expressing the significance of an academic article.

The findings of your research should be included in a separate section of your academic article, as it is the only section that contains data and results.

Aspects to Consider in Writing the Results Section of a Research Paper

A good place to start for your results section, it’s to restate the aim and objective of your research paper , so that your readers can refocus on the core of your academic article. So far in your research paper, your readers covered the introduction , literature review , research methodology and now it’s the time and place to bring their attention back to the purpose. A short paragraph is sufficient to restate your paper’s purpose.

Then, it’s key to consider that this is main section of your research paper where you present and explain the data you have collected or gathered and the findings of your data analysis and interpretation .

The academic writing should be clear, impartial, and objective . Each result, which confirms or refutes your assumptions, should be noted in an unbiased manner to increase the credibility of your study.

The results section gives you the opportunity to:

  • summarize the collected data in the form of descriptive statistics and
  • report on the findings from relevant and appropriate inferential statistical analyses and interpretation that are aimed at answering your academic article’s research questions or supporting your hypotheses, and show your research significance.

For an organized Research Results section, it’s best to use sub-sections. These sub-sections or divisions can be based on:

  • Your research questions, hypotheses or models , or
  • The statistical tests you have conducted.

How to Clearly Report Your Research Findings

If you have used statistical analyses in your academic article, and found answers to your research questions, report those facts in relation to your question.

A clear, coherent presentation of your research paper’s results should exhibit logical explanations without bias.

Confirming or Rejecting Hypotheses in Your Research Results

While defining the section of your research’s outcomes area, it’s important to keep in mind that the research results do not prove or demonstrate anything.

Your research findings can only affirm/ confirm or reject the hypotheses and assumptions elaborated upon in your academic article. In any case, your results:

  • help with the understanding of a research problem from within,
  • assist in dividing the research problem into different parts and concepts,
  • add to the exploration of an issue from various vantage points.

Summarizing Key Findings in Your Results Section

In a coherent results presentation, you should:

  • offer summarizing notes of your outcomes and
  • save the explanations of your key discoveries for your Discussion section.

For example, in your empirical analysis you notice an uncommon correlation between two variables. In the Results section, it is okay to bring up this outcome, however, posing new hypotheses for this uncommon result should be presented in the Discussion section.

Using Tables and Figures to Highlight Research Results

Any valuable academic article should focus on using tables, figures and/or graphs to:

  • provide accurate views about the research findings,
  • summarize the analysis,
  • help with the interpretation of these outcomes, and
  • offer better understanding of the overall study.

Instead of using only descriptive text for your scholarly article, consider other visual ways and representations that improve the academic writing of your research paper.

Figures, tables and graphs are useful methods for gathering a great deal of information into one place that can then be mentioned in the content of your article. If any research question or hypothesis is confirmed by your data and analysis, you can point to a table or figure that illustrates your finding.

When you present tables or figures in your results section, make sure to describe at least some of the data included in these visual representations so that readers can clearly understand how the table works and what interpretations can be concluded from them.

You can also use appendices if you have many other helpful figures or tables that cannot be fully included in the text of your academic article.

By using a helpful combination of text, figures, and tables, you, as Authors and Academics, can use this section to effectively share your studies’ findings with the scientific community.

Presenting Research Findings and Statistical Significance

A systematic description of your research results and a correct data analysis and interpretation are related to statistical significance, as they help avoid speculations or misinterpretations by readers of your academic article.

In a valuable research paper:

  • data must be directly and clearly presented,
  • statistical tests need to be used, and
  • the figures obtained and included in the study have to be explained.

Tests of statistical significance should always be presented with your results to show that your research findings objectively confirm or disprove your hypotheses. You need to report the research results with enough details so that readers can see which statistical analyses were conducted and validated to justify or disprove your hypotheses. It is important to mention relevant research findings, including those that were are statistical insignificant, not validated within your model’s framework, and are at odds with your initial assumptions.

Even if not all of your research results are confirmed, you should not ignore them. These negative results that do not support a particular hypothesis should be noted in the results section, and then explained in the Discussion section.

Writing a Research Results section that do not address the negative results, invalidates the research paper and does not reflect appropriate academic writing.

Research Results Comparison with Similar Academic Articles

The largest part of interpreting and discussing your research findings should be reserved for the Discussion / Conclusion section.

However, there are instances when it is appropriate to compare or contrast your results with findings from previous and similar studies. For example:

  • Similar to Author [Year], one of the findings of this study is the strong relationship between…
  • While Author [Year] found an indirect relationship between, our study highlighted ….

Key Aspects for Your Research Results Section

For a good structure and organization of your research, keep in mind these aspects:

  • Start your research results section by restating the purpose of your research, so that your readers can re-focus on core of your academic article
  • Include helpful and quality tables, figures, graphs that can synthesize your research
  • Make sure you include details about your data analysis and interpretation, as well as statistical significance tests
  • Report the statistical insignificant research findings for your academic article’s credibility
  • Use the past tense when describing to your research results
  • Do not use vague terms and be as concise as possible when you are reporting your research findings
  • Conclude your section with a short paragraph that summarizes your study’s key outcomes.

Which aspects do you focus on when writing your research results section?

This blog series focuses on useful academic writing tips. Next, we examine the Discussion and Conclusion section . Find our more on writing high-quality research papers

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How to Write a Results Section | Tips & Examples

Published on 27 October 2016 by Bas Swaen . Revised on 25 October 2022 by Tegan George.

A results section is where you report the main findings of the data collection and analysis you conducted for your thesis or dissertation . You should report all relevant results concisely and objectively, in a logical order. Don’t include subjective interpretations of why you found these results or what they mean – any evaluation should be saved for the discussion section .

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Table of contents

How to write a results section, reporting quantitative research results, reporting qualitative research results, results vs discussion vs conclusion, checklist: research results, frequently asked questions about results sections.

When conducting research, it’s important to report the results of your study prior to discussing your interpretations of it. This gives your reader a clear idea of exactly what you found and keeps the data itself separate from your subjective analysis.

Here are a few best practices:

  • Your results should always be written in the past tense.
  • While the length of this section depends on how much data you collected and analysed, it should be written as concisely as possible.
  • Only include results that are directly relevant to answering your research questions . Avoid speculative or interpretative words like ‘appears’ or ‘implies’.
  • If you have other results you’d like to include, consider adding them to an appendix or footnotes.
  • Always start out with your broadest results first, and then flow into your more granular (but still relevant) ones. Think of it like a shoe shop: first discuss the shoes as a whole, then the trainers, boots, sandals, etc.

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If you conducted quantitative research , you’ll likely be working with the results of some sort of statistical analysis .

Your results section should report the results of any statistical tests you used to compare groups or assess relationships between variables . It should also state whether or not each hypothesis was supported.

The most logical way to structure quantitative results is to frame them around your research questions or hypotheses. For each question or hypothesis, share:

  • A reminder of the type of analysis you used (e.g., a two-sample t test or simple linear regression ). A more detailed description of your analysis should go in your methodology section.
  • A concise summary of each relevant result, both positive and negative. This can include any relevant descriptive statistics (e.g., means and standard deviations ) as well as inferential statistics (e.g., t scores, degrees of freedom , and p values ). Remember, these numbers are often placed in parentheses.
  • A brief statement of how each result relates to the question, or whether the hypothesis was supported. You can briefly mention any results that didn’t fit with your expectations and assumptions, but save any speculation on their meaning or consequences for your discussion  and conclusion.

A note on tables and figures

In quantitative research, it’s often helpful to include visual elements such as graphs, charts, and tables , but only if they are directly relevant to your results. Give these elements clear, descriptive titles and labels so that your reader can easily understand what is being shown. If you want to include any other visual elements that are more tangential in nature, consider adding a figure and table list .

As a rule of thumb:

  • Tables are used to communicate exact values, giving a concise overview of various results
  • Graphs and charts are used to visualise trends and relationships, giving an at-a-glance illustration of key findings

Don’t forget to also mention any tables and figures you used within the text of your results section. Summarise or elaborate on specific aspects you think your reader should know about rather than merely restating the same numbers already shown.

Example of using figures in the results section

Figure 1: Intention to donate to environmental organisations based on social distance from impact of environmental damage.

In qualitative research , your results might not all be directly related to specific hypotheses. In this case, you can structure your results section around key themes or topics that emerged from your analysis of the data.

For each theme, start with general observations about what the data showed. You can mention:

  • Recurring points of agreement or disagreement
  • Patterns and trends
  • Particularly significant snippets from individual responses

Next, clarify and support these points with direct quotations. Be sure to report any relevant demographic information about participants. Further information (such as full transcripts , if appropriate) can be included in an appendix .

‘I think that in role-playing games, there’s more attention to character design, to world design, because the whole story is important and more attention is paid to certain game elements […] so that perhaps you do need bigger teams of creative experts than in an average shooter or something.’

Responses suggest that video game consumers consider some types of games to have more artistic potential than others.

Your results section should objectively report your findings, presenting only brief observations in relation to each question, hypothesis, or theme.

It should not  speculate about the meaning of the results or attempt to answer your main research question . Detailed interpretation of your results is more suitable for your discussion section , while synthesis of your results into an overall answer to your main research question is best left for your conclusion .

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I have completed my data collection and analyzed the results.

I have included all results that are relevant to my research questions.

I have concisely and objectively reported each result, including relevant descriptive statistics and inferential statistics .

I have stated whether each hypothesis was supported or refuted.

I have used tables and figures to illustrate my results where appropriate.

All tables and figures are correctly labelled and referred to in the text.

There is no subjective interpretation or speculation on the meaning of the results.

You've finished writing up your results! Use the other checklists to further improve your thesis.

The results chapter of a thesis or dissertation presents your research results concisely and objectively.

In quantitative research , for each question or hypothesis , state:

  • The type of analysis used
  • Relevant results in the form of descriptive and inferential statistics
  • Whether or not the alternative hypothesis was supported

In qualitative research , for each question or theme, describe:

  • Recurring patterns
  • Significant or representative individual responses
  • Relevant quotations from the data

Don’t interpret or speculate in the results chapter.

Results are usually written in the past tense , because they are describing the outcome of completed actions.

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

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How to clearly articulate results and construct tables and figures in a scientific paper?

The writing of the results section of a scientific paper is very important for the readers for clearly understanding of the study. This review summarizes the rules for writing the results section of a scientific paper and describes the use of tables and figures.

Introduction

Medical articles consist of review articles, case reports, and letters to the editor which are prepared with the intention of publishing in journals related to the medical discipline of the author. For an academician to be able to progress in carreer, and make his/her activities known in the academic environment, require preparation of the protocol of his/her academic research article, and acquiring sufficient information, and experience related to the composition of this article. In this review article, the information related to the writing of the ‘Results’ section, and use of tables, and figures will be presented to the attention of the readers.

Writing the ‘Results’ section

The ‘Results’ section is perhaps the most important part of a research article. In fact the authors will share the results of their research/study with their readers. Renown British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) indicated his feelings as “The great tragedy of science: the slaying of a beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact.” which emphasizes the importance of accurately, and impressively written results.

In essence results provide a response for the question” What is found in the research performed?”. Therefore, it is the most vital part of the article. As a priority, while drafting the ‘Results’ section of a manuscript one should not firstly write down methods in the ‘Material and Method’ section. The first sentence should give information about the number of patients who met the inclusion criteria, and thus enrolled in the study. [ 1 ] Besides information about the number of patients excluded from the study, and the reasons for exclusion is very important in that they will enlighten the readers, and reviewers who critically evaluate the manuscript, and also reflect the seriousness of the study. On the other hand, the results obtained should be recorded in chronological order, and without any comments. [ 2 ] In this section use of simple present tense is more appropriate. The findings should be expressed in brief, lucid, and explicable words. The writing style should not be boring for the reader. During writing process of a research article, a generally ill-conceived point is that positive, and significant findings are more important, attractive, and valuable, while negative, and insignificant findings are worthless, and less attractive. A scientific research is not performed to confirm a hypothesis, rather to test it. Not only positive, and significant results are worth writing, on the other hand negative or statistically insignificant result which support fallacy of a widely accepted opinion might be valuable. Therefore, all findings obtained during research should be inclıuded in the ‘Results’ section. [ 1 ]

While writing the ‘Results’ section, the sequence of results, tabulated data, and information which will be illustrated as figures should be definitively indicated. In indicating insignificant changes, do not use expressions as “decreased” or “increased”, these words should be reserved for significant changes. If results related to more than one parameter would be reported, it is appropriate to write the results under the subheading of its related parameter so as to facilitate reading, and comprehension of information. [ 2 ] Only data, and information concerning the study in question should be included in the ‘Results’ section. Results not mentioned in this section should not be included in the ‘Discussion’ and ‘Summary’ sections. Since the results obtained by the authors are cited in the ‘Results’ section, any reference should not be indicated in this section. [ 3 ]

In the ‘Results’ section, numerical expressions should be written in technically appropriate terms. The number of digits (1, 2 or 3 digits) to be written after a comma (in Turkish) or a point (in especially American English) should be determined The number of digits written after the punctuation marks should not be changed all throughout the text. Data should be expressed as mean/median ± standard deviation. Data as age, and scale scores should be indicated together with ranges of values. Absolute numerical value corresponding to a percentage must be also indicated. P values calculated in statistical analysis should be expressed in their absolute values. While writing p values of statistically significant data, instead of p<0.05 the actual level of significance should be recorded. If p value is smaller than 0.001, then it can be written as p <0.01. [ 2 ] While writing the ‘Results’ section, significant data which should be recalled by the readers must be indicated in the main text. It will be appropriate to indicate other demographic numerical details in tables or figures.

As an example elucidating the abovementioned topics a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the Turkish Journal of Urology in the year 2007 (Türk Üroloji Dergisi 2007;33:18–23) is presented below:

“A total of 9 (56.2%) female, and 7 (43.8%) male patients with were included in this study. Mean age of all the patients was 44.3±13.8 (17–65) years, and mean dimensions of the adrenal mass was 4.5±3.4 (1–14) cm. Mean ages of the male, and female patients were 44.1 (30–65), and 42.4 (17–64) years, while mean diameters of adrenal masses were 3.2 (1–5), and 4.5 (1–14) cm (p age =0.963, p mass size =0.206). Surgical procedures were realized using transperitoneal approach through Chevron incision in 1 (6.2%), and retroperitoneal approach using flank incision with removal of the 11. rib in 15 (93.7%) patients. Right (n=6; 37.5%), and left (n=2; 12.5%) adrenalectomies were performed. Two (12.5%) patients underwent bilateral adrenalectomy in the same session because of clinical Cushing’s syndrome persisted despite transsphenoidal hipophysectomy. Mean operative time, and length of the hospital stay were 135 (65–190) min, and 3 (2–6) days, respectively. While resecting 11. rib during retroperitoneal adrenalectomy performed in 1 patient, pleura was perforated for nearly 1.5 cm. The perforated region was drained, and closed intraoperatively with 4/0 polyglyctan sutures. The patient did not develop postoperative pneumothorax. In none of the patients postoperative complications as pneumothorax, bleeding, prolonged drainage were seen. Results of histopathological analysis of the specimens retrieved at the end of the operation were summarized in Table 1 .” Table 1. Histopathological examination results of the patients Histopathological diagnosis Men n (%) Women n (%) Total n (%) Adrenal cortical adenoma 5 (31.3) 6 (37.6) 11 (68.8) Pheochromocytoma 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) 2 (12.6) Ganglioneuroma 1 (6.2) - 1 (6.2) Myelolipoma - 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) Adrenal carcinoma - 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) Total 7 (43.7) 9 (56.2) 16 (100) Open in a separate window

Use of tables, and figures

To prevent the audience from getting bored while reading a scientific article, some of the data should be expressed in a visual format in graphics, and figures rather than crowded numerical values in the text. Peer-reviewers frequently look at tables, and figures. High quality tables, and figures increase the chance of acceptance of the manuscript for publication.

Number of tables in the manuscript should not exceed the number recommended by the editorial board of the journal. Data in the main text, and tables should not be repeated many times. Tables should be comprehensible, and a reader should be able to express an opinion about the results just at looking at the tables without reading the main text. Data included in tables should comply with those mentioned in the main text, and percentages in rows, and columns should be summed up accurately. Unit of each variable should be absolutely defined. Sampling size of each group should be absolutely indicated. Values should be expressed as values±standard error, range or 95% confidence interval. Tables should include precise p values, and level of significance as assessed with statistical analysis should be indicated in footnotes. [ 2 ] Use of abbreviations in tables should be avoided, if abbreviations are required they should be defined explicitly in the footnotes or legends of the tables. As a general rule, rows should be arranged as double-spaced Besides do not use pattern coloring for cells of rows, and columns. Values included in tables should be correctly approximated. [ 1 , 2 ]

As an example elucidating the abovementioned topics a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the Turkish Journal of Urology in the year 2007 (Türk Üroloji Dergisi 2007;33:18–23).is shown in Table 1 .

Most of the readers priorly prefer to look at figures, and graphs rather than reading lots of pages. Selection of appropriate types of graphs for demonstration of data is a critical decision which requires artist’s meticulousness. As is the case with tables, graphs, and figures should also disploay information not provided in the text. Bar, line, and pie graphs, scatter plots, and histograms are some examples of graphs. In graphs, independent variables should be represented on the horizontal, and dependent variables on the vertical axis. Number of subjects in every subgroup should be indicated The labels on each axis should be easily understandable. [ 2 ] The label of the Y axis should be written vertically from bottom to top. The fundamental point in writing explanatory notes for graphs, and figures is to help the readers understand the contents of them without referring to the main text. Meanings of abbreviations, and acronyms used in the graphs, and figures should be provided in explanatory notes. In the explanatory notes striking data should be emphasized. Statistical tests used, levels of significance, sampling size, stains used for analyses, and magnification rate should be written in order to facilitate comprehension of the study procedures. [ 1 , 2 ]

Flow diagram can be utilized in the ‘Results’ section. This diagram facilitates comprehension of the results obtained at certain steps of monitorization during the research process. Flow diagram can be used either in the ‘Results’ or ‘Material and Method’ section. [ 2 , 3 ]

Histopathological analyses, surgical technique or radiological images which are considered to be more useful for the comprehension of the text by the readers can be visually displayed. Important findings should be marked on photos, and their definitions should be provided clearly in the explanatory legends. [ 1 ]

As an example elucidating the abovementioned issues, graphics, and flow diagram in the ‘Results’ section of a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the World Journal of Urology in the year 2010 (World J Urol 2010;28:17–22.) are shown in Figures 1 , and ​ and2 2 .

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is TJU-39-Supp-16-g01.jpg

a The mean SHIM scores of the groups before and after treatment. SHIM sexual health inventory for male. b The mean IPSS scores of the groups before and after treatment. IPSS international prostate symptom score

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is TJU-39-Supp-16-g02.jpg

Flowchart showing patients’ progress during the study. SHIM sexual health inventory for male, IIEF international index of erectile function, IPSS international prostate symptom score, QoL quality of life, Q max maximum urinary flow rate. PRV post voiding residual urine volume

In conclusion, in line with the motto of the famous German physicist Albert Einstein (1879–1955). ‘If you are out to describe the truth, leave elegance to the tailor .’ results obtained in a scientific research article should be expressed accurately, and with a masterstroke of a tailor in compliance with certain rules which will ensure acceptability of the scientific manuscript by the editorial board of the journal, and also facilitate its intelligibility by the readers.

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Americans’ social media use, youtube and facebook are by far the most used online platforms among u.s. adults; tiktok’s user base has grown since 2021.

To better understand Americans’ social media use, Pew Research Center surveyed 5,733 U.S. adults from May 19 to Sept. 5, 2023. Ipsos conducted this National Public Opinion Reference Survey (NPORS) for the Center using address-based sampling and a multimode protocol that included both web and mail. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race and ethnicity, education and other categories.

Polls from 2000 to 2021 were conducted via phone. For more on this mode shift, read our Q&A .

Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and  its methodology ­­­.

A note on terminology: Our May-September 2023 survey was already in the field when Twitter changed its name to “X.” The terms  Twitter  and  X  are both used in this report to refer to the same platform.

Social media platforms faced a range of controversies in recent years, including concerns over misinformation and data privacy . Even so, U.S. adults use a wide range of sites and apps, especially YouTube and Facebook. And TikTok – which some Congress members previously called to ban – saw growth in its user base.

These findings come from a Pew Research Center survey of 5,733 U.S. adults conducted May 19-Sept. 5, 2023.

Which social media sites do Americans use most?

A horizontal bar chart showing that most U.S. adults use YouTube and Facebook; about half use Instagram.

YouTube by and large is the most widely used online platform measured in our survey. Roughly eight-in-ten U.S. adults (83%) report ever using the video-based platform.

While a somewhat lower share reports using it, Facebook is also a dominant player in the online landscape. Most Americans (68%) report using the social media platform.

Additionally, roughly half of U.S. adults (47%) say they use Instagram .

The other sites and apps asked about are not as widely used , but a fair portion of Americans still use them:

  • 27% to 35% of U.S. adults use Pinterest, TikTok, LinkedIn, WhatsApp and Snapchat.
  • About one-in-five say they use Twitter (recently renamed “X”) and Reddit.  

This year is the first time we asked about BeReal, a photo-based platform launched in 2020. Just 3% of U.S. adults report using it.

Recent Center findings show that YouTube also dominates the social media landscape among U.S. teens .

TikTok sees growth since 2021

One platform – TikTok – stands out for growth of its user base. A third of U.S. adults (33%) say they use the video-based platform, up 12 percentage points from 2021 (21%).

A line chart showing that a third of U.S. adults say they use TikTok, up from 21% in 2021.

The other sites asked about had more modest or no growth over the past couple of years. For instance, while YouTube and Facebook dominate the social media landscape, the shares of adults who use these platforms has remained stable since 2021.

The Center has been tracking use of online platforms for many years. Recently, we shifted from gathering responses via telephone to the web and mail. Mode changes can affect study results in a number of ways, therefore we have to take a cautious approach when examining how things have – or have not – changed since our last study on these topics in 2021. For more details on this shift, please read our Q&A .

Stark age differences in who uses each app or site

Adults under 30 are far more likely than their older counterparts to use many of the online platforms. These findings are consistent with previous Center data .

A dot plot showing that the youngest U.S. adults are far more likely to use Instagram, Snapchat and TikTok; age differences are less pronounced for Facebook.

Age gaps are especially large for Instagram, Snapchat and TikTok – platforms that are used by majorities of adults under 30. For example:

  • 78% of 18- to 29-year-olds say they use Instagram, far higher than the share among those 65 and older (15%).
  • 65% of U.S. adults under 30 report using Snapchat, compared with just 4% of the oldest age cohort.
  • 62% of 18- to 29-year-olds say they use TikTok, much higher than the share among adults ages 65 years and older (10%).
  • Americans ages 30 to 49 and 50 to 64 fall somewhere in between for all three platforms.

YouTube and Facebook are the only two platforms that majorities of all age groups use. That said, there is still a large age gap between the youngest and oldest adults when it comes to use of YouTube. The age gap for Facebook, though, is much smaller.

Americans ages 30 to 49 stand out for using three of the platforms – LinkedIn, WhatsApp and Facebook – at higher rates. For instance, 40% of this age group uses LinkedIn, higher than the roughly three-in-ten among those ages 18 to 29 and 50 to 64. And just 12% of those 65 and older say the same. 

Overall, a large majority of the youngest adults use multiple sites and apps. About three-quarters of adults under 30 (74%) use at least five of the platforms asked about. This is far higher than the shares of those ages 30 to 49 (53%), 50 to 64 (30%), and ages 65 and older (8%) who say the same.  

Refer to our social media fact sheet for more detailed data by age for each site and app.

Other demographic differences in use of online platforms

A number of demographic differences emerge in who uses each platform. Some of these include the following:

  • Race and ethnicity: Roughly six-in-ten Hispanic (58%) and Asian (57%) adults report using Instagram, somewhat higher than the shares among Black (46%) and White (43%) adults. 1
  • Gender: Women are more likely than their male counterparts to say they use the platform.
  • Education: Those with some college education and those with a college degree report using it at somewhat higher rates than those who have a high school degree or less education.
  • Race and ethnicity: Hispanic adults are particularly likely to use TikTok, with 49% saying they use it, higher than Black adults (39%). Even smaller shares of Asian (29%) and White (28%) adults say the same.
  • Gender: Women use the platform at higher rates than men (40% vs. 25%).
  • Education: Americans with higher levels of formal education are especially likely to use LinkedIn. For instance, 53% of Americans with at least a bachelor’s degree report using the platform, far higher than among those who have some college education (28%) and those who have a high school degree or less education (10%). This is the largest educational difference measured across any of the platforms asked about.

Twitter (renamed “X”)

  • Household income: Adults with higher household incomes use Twitter at somewhat higher rates. For instance, 29% of U.S. adults who have an annual household income of at least $100,000 say they use the platform. This compares with one-in-five among those with annual household incomes of $70,000 to $99,999, and around one-in-five among those with annual incomes of less than $30,000 and those between $30,000 and $69,999.
  • Gender: Women are far more likely to use Pinterest than men (50% vs. 19%).
  • Race and ethnicity: 54% of Hispanic adults and 51% of Asian adults report using WhatsApp. This compares with 31% of Black adults and even smaller shares of those who are White (20%).

A heat map showing how use of online platforms – such as Facebook, Instagram or TikTok – differs among some U.S. demographic groups.

  • Estimates for Asian adults are representative of English speakers only. ↩

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Table of contents, q&a: how – and why – we’re changing the way we study tech adoption, americans’ use of mobile technology and home broadband, social media fact sheet, internet/broadband fact sheet, mobile fact sheet, most popular.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

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  • Janet Perkins   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2868-1752 1 ,
  • Sarah Nelson 2 ,
  • Emma Birley 2 ,
  • Emilie Mcswiggan 2 ,
  • Marshall Dozier 3 ,
  • Anna McCarthy 4 ,
  • Nadege Atkins 2 ,
  • Eldad Agyei-Manu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2712-0198 2 ,
  • Jasmin Rostron   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2960-2892 2 ,
  • Koichi Kameda   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1337-6501 5 ,
  • Ann Kelly   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4658-2133 6 ,
  • Clare Chandler   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6499-7522 7 &
  • Alice Street   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7874-0234 1  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  172 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Qualitative social research has made valuable contributions to understanding technology-based interventions in global health. However, we have little evidence of who is carrying out this research, where, how, for what purpose, or the overall scope of this body of work. To address these questions, we undertook a systematic evidence mapping of one area of technology-focused research in global health, related to the development, deployment and use of point-of-care tests (POCTs) for low-and middle-income countries (LMICs).

We conducted an exhaustive search to identify papers reporting on primary qualitative studies that explore the development, deployment, and use of POCTs in LMICs and screened results to identify studies meeting the inclusion criteria. Data were extracted from included studies and descriptive analyses were conducted.

One hundred thirty-eight studies met our inclusion criteria, with numbers increasing year by year. Funding of studies was primarily credited to high income country (HIC)-based institutions (95%) and 64% of first authors were affiliated with HIC-based institutions. Study sites, in contrast, were concentrated in a small number of LMICs. Relatively few studies examined social phenomena related to POCTs that take place in HICs. Seventy-one percent of papers reported on studies conducted within the context of a trial or intervention. Eighty percent reported on studies considering POCTs for HIV and/or malaria. Studies overwhelmingly reported on POCT use (91%) within primary-level health facilities (60%) or in hospitals (30%) and explored the perspectives of the health workforce (70%).

Conclusions

A reflexive approach to the role, status, and contribution of qualitative and social science research is crucial to identifying the contributions it can make to the production of global health knowledge and understanding the roles technology can play in achieving global health goals. The body of qualitative social research on POCTs for LMICs is highly concentrated in scope, overwhelmingly focuses on testing in the context of a narrow number of donor-supported initiatives and is driven by HIC resources and expertise. To optimise the full potential of qualitative social research requires the promotion of open and just research ecosystems that broaden the scope of inquiry beyond established public health paradigms and build social science capacity in LMICs.

Peer Review reports

The era of ‘global health’ has been characterised by a growing emphasis on technical solutions to what are ultimately problems of health inequities [ 1 , 2 ]. In recent years, mobile, easy-to-use and affordable technological innovations, such as pharmaceuticals, m-health devices, and rapid diagnostic tests, have become increasingly central to efforts to improve access to life-saving prevention, diagnosis, and treatment in places where existing health systems and infrastructures are under-resourced [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ].

Qualitative social research has made widely recognised contributions to understanding the implications and effects of this innovation-focused agenda, especially in terms of the dynamic interrelationships between technologies, infrastructures, health systems, and human relations [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. This research has been undertaken across numerous disciplines, including public health, health economics, anthropology, sociology, human geography, and science and technology studies, and has taken a wide variety of forms, from stand-alone historical and ethnographic studies of technological innovation and intervention (e.g., [ 2 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]), to numerous operational and evaluative studies of technical interventions (e.g., [ 13 , 14 ]).

Yet to date there has been little systematic analysis of the context, scope, and extent of social research for specific global health technologies; to understand the kinds of social science questions that are commonly posed about global health technologies, the methods utilised to answer those questions, who undertakes the research, and to what purpose. Systematic mapping of the social research ecosystem in global health is important if we are to understand the full contribution made by this body of work, but also its limitations in terms of the voices and perspectives that are represented and the potentially important questions and topics omitted. In this paper, we provide a systematic evidence mapping of qualitative social research to answer these questions in one area: the development, deployment, and use of point-of-care tests (POCTs) in low-and middle-income country (LMIC) settings. Our aim is to prompt reflection on what qualitative social research is for; that is, what work we want it to do in global health.

POCT devices that do not rely on modern laboratory equipment or highly skilled staff, are portable and easy to use, and provide rapid turnover of results have the potential to transform healthcare in LMICs by dramatically improving access to and speed of diagnosis [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Strengthening diagnostic systems is widely viewed as essential not only to clinical management but also to tackling antimicrobial resistance, achieving universal health coverage, rising costs of new medicines, and emerging disease threats and epidemics [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. In recent years, POCTs have become a near-ubiquitous feature of international disease control, elimination, and health systems strengthening programmes. The growing importance of POCTs to global health priorities is reflected in the release of the WHO Model List of Essential Diagnostics List (EDL) in 2018 [ 22 , 23 ], which currently lists 32 POCTs as the basic diagnostic tests that should be made available for use in health facilities without laboratories [ 24 , 25 ]. The COVID-19 pandemic heightened awareness of the importance of diagnostics and fuelled calls for global access to be accelerated and decentralised, for example through expanding the use of POCTs in community settings [ 26 ].

The ambition for expansion of POCTs in LMICs over the past three decades has inspired a substantial body of qualitative social research focused on these technologies. This body of research is yet to be assessed for whether it responds to the breadth of health priorities in countries, whether its funding and authorship reflect the full social and geographic spread of knowledge on this topic, and the scope of the research questions and objectives that underpin this research.

This systematic evidence mapping of qualitative social research focused on the development, deployment, and use of POCTs in LMICs, and was guided by two research questions:

Research question 1: Where, by whom, and how has qualitative and social science research on POCTs in LMICs been produced?

Research question 2 : What is the scope and extent of existing qualitative and social science research on POCTs and what are the limitations?

We aim to provide a guide to the growing field of qualitative social research on diagnostics for social scientists, qualitative public health researchers, and global health actors by mapping its key contributions, strengths, weaknesses, and areas of density and sparsity. Systematic evidence mapping also has the potential to generate data on the social and economic conditions of knowledge production in global health research and provide insights to how those conditions might shape the scope of the evidence base. We argue that a reflexive approach to the role, status, and contribution of qualitative and social science research is crucial to identify the contributions it can make to the production of global health knowledge and understanding the roles technology can play in achieving global health goals.

Methodology

Search strategy.

We conducted an exhaustive search of academic databases to identify studies related to ‘point-of-care testing’, ‘qualitative research’, and ‘low- and middle-income countries’. For each category, we identified multiple keywords taking inspiration from other scholars to develop searches for LMICs [ 27 ], POCTs [ 28 ], and qualitative research [ 29 , 30 , 31 ], and identified their index terms in bibliographic databases.

We searched the following databases: MEDLINE, Embase, Anthropology Plus, Web of Science, CINAHL, Scopus, Global Index Medicus, World Health Organization, Global Health (CABI), and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global database.

Guided by the University of Edinburgh Information Specialist (MD), we developed targeted search strategies for each database (see supplementary material (see Additional file 1 ). We used the PRESS checklist [ 32 ] to appraise our search strategies. We searched all databases for studies published from 1 January 2000 to 7 October 2022, as the field of POCTs is shifting so rapidly that we assumed evidence prior to this is less likely to be relevant to the contemporary context. In a subsequent search, we reviewed the references and citations of all papers meeting the inclusion criteria in the Web of Science to identify studies not initially picked up. We also manually searched books and journals less likely to be picked up in the search.

Eligibility criteria

We included papers reporting on primary studies employing qualitative designs and exploring any POCT designed to detect health disorders in LMICs. We approached papers which reported on mixed-methods studies with caution. Although we did not carry out a specific search to identify mixed-methods studies, we included papers drawing from studies which were mixed-methods in design, but in which the qualitative component was epistemologically distinct from the quantitative component; i.e., demonstrating a non-positivist research epistemology, and in which the qualitative component was reported in a separate publication from the quantitative component of the study. We purposefully excluded studies which demonstrated a positivist epistemology since our aim was to focus on the contribution that interpretivist, constructivist, and critical ‘social’ epistemologies could offer as a balance to positivist epistemologies [ 6 , 7 ].

We did not place any limits on language and did not exclude papers based on methodological limitations of the studies (see Additional file 2 ).

Source selection

After carrying out the search, we removed duplicates from the set of identified papers. Using Covidence software, paper titles and abstracts were independently screened by two team members. Full texts of papers which passed this phase were retrieved and eligibility for inclusion independently assessed by two members of the team. Disagreements regarding inclusion or exclusion reason were reviewed by a third team member and then resolved through discussion.

Data extraction and analysis

From each included study we extracted (a) publication data, i.e., author, year, title, funder, and author institutions, and (b) descriptive data, i.e., study context, methods, geographical locations, health conditions concerned, POCT type, biological sample, purpose of POCT, setting, stage(s) of the POCT life cycle studied and perspective(s) considered. Data were extracted from each paper by two team members and disagreements resolved through discussion.

Data were cleaned by another team member not involved in data extraction. We then used this data to generate descriptive analyses related to the categories of interest using Excel.

Included studies

Figure  1 presents the PRISMA flow diagram of the paper search and selection. Through the database search, 13,221 papers were identified. After removing duplicates, 7041 papers remained for title and abstract screening, among which 224 met the inclusion criteria to move to full-text screening. Full text articles were retrieved for 223 articles, of which 125 met the inclusion criteria after full-text screening. Through the subsequent reference and citation search of the 125 included papers, we identified an additional 405 papers for screening. In the manual search, we identified six further papers and book chapters. After title and abstract screening of these 411 papers from the reference and citation and manual search, 21 were retrieved for full-text screening. Thirteen met the inclusion criteria. This resulted in a total of 138 articles included in the review. While most of the sources meeting our inclusion criteria were English-language, seven Portuguese and one Spanish paper met our criteria and were included in the analysis. Data from these papers were extracted and analysed by team members fluent in these languages.

figure 1

Prisma flow diagram

Spatial and temporal distribution of research

Figure  2 presents the number of papers meeting the inclusion criteria over time. No papers were included prior to 2007. Between four and eight papers were included for each year from 2010–14. For 2015 the number of included studies increased to 16, and between 12–16 studies were identified for each year from 2016 to 2021, suggesting a possible upward trend. Ten studies from the first nine months of 2022 were included.

figure 2

Chronology of included number of publications per year, January 2007-September 2022. 2022 data for January–September 2022 only

Figure  3 illustrates the geographic distribution of funding institutions, research sites and the locations of institutional affiliations for the first author and for all other authors of the papers.

figure 3

Study funding, site and authorship location

The upper left-hand map of Fig.  3 presents the location of the funding institutions papers credited with providing financial support to the different studies. Across the 138 papers, 167 funding credits were reported, spanning 62 distinct organisations/institutions. Among the 167 reported funding institution credits, United Stated-based institutions were credited with providing financial support in 50% ( n  = 84) of cases, and United Kingdom-based institutions in 20% ( n  = 33) of cases. Twenty-five percent ( n  = 42) of the reported credits were of institutions located in other countries spanning high-income countries (HICs) (Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, German, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland). Only four funding institutions based in LMICs were represented (Brazil, South Africa, Tanzania and Uganda), comprising 5% ( n  = 8) of the reported funding institution credits. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation was the most reported funding institution, credited in 20% ( n  = 27) of all papers. The United States National Institute of Health was the second most credited funding institution ( n  = 12; 9%) followed by the Wellcome Trust ( n  = 10; 7%).

The upper right-hand map in Fig.  3 represents the countries in which the studies reported by the papers were carried out (multiple possible). While 41 countries are represented on this map as study sites, the sites are highly concentrated, with nearly half (47%) of reported study sites located in the following five countries: Uganda ( n  = 22; 13%), Kenya ( n  = 18; 11%) South Africa ( n  = 15; 9%), Brazil ( n  = 13; 8%) and India ( n  = 10; 6%).

The two lower maps of Fig.  3 represent the institutional affiliation of paper authors. The lower left-hand map presents the location of the first author affiliation. Across the papers, 148 first author affiliations were mentioned, with first authors on 10 papers providing dual-affiliations. The majority of first author affiliations were located in HICs ( n  = 94; 64%), most commonly in the United Kingdom ( n  = 27; 18%), the United States ( n  = 24; 16%) and the Netherlands ( n  = 16; 11%). The University of Maastricht, located in the Netherlands, was the single most represented institution. Three scholars affiliated with this university were first author on 14 papers (9%), and one of these authors was first author on 10 of these papers, and senior author on the other four. First author affiliations located in LMIC-based institutions were mentioned in 35% ( n  = 54) of studies, most commonly in Brazil ( n  = 11; 7%) and Uganda ( n  = 7; 5%).

The lower right-hand map illustrates the location of affiliated institutions for all other authors besides the first author. Across the papers, there were 438 mentions of affiliated institutions for all non-first authors. Compared to first author affiliations, these were more evenly divided between LMICs ( n  = 243; 53%) and HICs ( n  = 204; 47%).

Research context and approach

Figure  4 presents the wider research context reported. The majority ( n  = 98; 71%) of papers reported qualitative research to be embedded within implementation projects or trials. Twenty-five (18%) studies were reported as solely qualitative and not explicitly attached to a trial or intervention.

figure 4

Reported study context

Interviews were the most reported research method, with 88% ( n  = 122) of papers reporting interviews as among the methods employed in studies. The second most common method was focus group discussions ( n  = 60; 43%). Fourteen percent ( n  = 20) of papers mentioned drawing from ethnographic methods, including in-depth ethnographic fieldwork ( n  = 12, 9%), focused ethnographic methods ( n  = 5, 4%), or using participant observation as a method ( n  = 3, 2%) (see Additional file 3 ). Of these, 10 (7%) were reported as a study embedded within an intervention or trial, eight (6%) were reported as part of an independent qualitative study, and in two (1%), the context was unspecified.

Scope of research (object of study)

Table 1 presents the health conditions and tests which were reported as the object of studies. HIV ( n  = 68; 49%) and malaria ( n  = 50; 36%) were the most commonly reported health conditions, with over 80% ( n  = 114) of papers reporting on one or both health conditions. Over half of studies ( n  = 40/68; 59%) examining POCTs for diagnosing HIV examined HIV rapid diagnostic tests (HIV RDTs), which were represented in 30% of all papers, while nearly all ( n  = 47/50; 94%) malaria-focused papers examined the use of malaria rapid diagnostic tests (mRDTs), represented in 35% of all papers overall. Papers reporting on malaria testing peaked in 2016, with 11 papers reporting on malaria published that year, decreasing to one and two papers in 2020 and 2021, respectively (no such paper published in 2022 was included up to the date of search). In contrast, papers reporting on HIV peaked in 2020 at 12, and remained high, with seven HIV-reporting papers in 2021–22, the highest reported condition over these years (see Additional files 4 and 5 ).

Syphilis testing was represented in 10% ( n  = 14) of papers, while 8% ( n  = 11) of papers reported on studies examining tuberculosis (TB) testing.

Among reported health conditions, many papers focused on testing in the context of antenatal care, including: seven out of 68 papers on HIV testing; eight out of the 50 papers on malaria testing; and five out of 14 papers on syphilis testing.

The most common test format considered were RDTs, reported in 71% ( n  = 98) of papers, followed by molecular tests, reported on in 10% ( n  = 14) of papers (see Additional file 6 ).

Figure  5 presents the moments across the POCT life cycle represented in the included papers. Footnote 1 Similar numbers of papers reported on policy, regulation, or funding ( n  = 16; 12%), manufacturing ( n  = 10; 7%) and procurement ( n  = 14; 10%). Twenty-eight (20%) papers report on supply chain management and seven (5%) on storage. Almost all ( n  = 126; 91%) papers concerned the moment of POCT use, e.g., taking and testing the sample, interpreting the results, and post-result decision-making and action. Nine (7%) studies considered input of information generated with POCTs into information systems, while only three considered waste management and disposal.

figure 5

POCT life cycle moment represented

Primary health care facilities were the most represented settings, reported on in 60% ( n  = 83) of papers. Hospitals ( n  = 41; 30%) were the second most common setting, followed by community settings ( n  = 37; 27%), and domestic spaces ( n  = 20; 15%) (see Additional file 7 ). Among the papers which specified the setting as either a public/state setting or a private/commercial setting ( n  = 99, 72%), 78% ( n  = 77) reported on studies carrying out research in publicly funded health settings only, 9% ( n  = 9) in private/commercial settings only, while 13% ( n  = 13) reported on studies carried out in both public and private/commercial health settings (see Additional file 8 ).

While the body of papers took into account perspectives of actors across the POCT life cycle, the most densely represented perspectives were those of the formal health workforce, with 75% of papers taking these perspectives into account. The second most represented perspective was that of patients ( n  = 41; 30%), while 15% ( n  = 21) considered the perspective of patients’ family members. Fewer papers considered perspectives of policymakers, regulators, developers or designers, and specific end-user groups considered “at risk” or “vulnerable” (see Additional file 9 ).

The findings of this mapping indicate that qualitative social research related to POCTs for LMICs is highly concentrated and displays a striking lack of diversity and breadth, both in terms of how, where and by whom it has been produced, and the scope of research. Qualitative social research exploring POCTs for LMICs is often deployed to support quantitative scientific studies rather than contribute to the production of knowledge in the social sciences. While we did not search for mixed-methods studies, nearly half of included papers were reported as companions to a quantitative study—over double those reported as solely qualitative research. This is perhaps unsurprising since global health research is historically rooted in the traditions of clinical research, which privileges quantitative research and is underpinned by positivist epistemologies. Though important, positivist epistemologies are limited in their ability to produce knowledge related to the human condition, perceptions and experiences, or to reflexively interrogate underpinning value assumptions and cultural frameworks. Qualitative social research, which is underpinned by interpretive epistemologies, is especially well-equipped to contribute to these areas [ 6 , 7 , 33 ]. It is therefore important to consider how the appendage of qualitative studies to quantitative studies may shape, and potentially constrain, the knowledge they generate [ 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ].

The context of the reported studies—including the funding sources, where research is done, by whom, and where research is published—is important for understanding the global health research ecosystem within which the purpose and scope of research is formulated, [ 37 ] A majority of papers reported on studies carried out within the context of a trial or intervention, suggesting that qualitative research has been brought in primarily to answer questions about implementation-related variables, e.g., feasibility and acceptability, and potentially omitting critical questions that social scientists might pose, such as those pertaining to the broader structural conditions in which POCTs are prioritised, funded, developed and deployed, or the ways in which POCTs reconfigure power relationships in medicine (see e.g., [ 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ]). Ethnographic methods are especially well-suited to unearthing these social and political dimensions of global health technologies [ 9 , 43 , 44 , 45 ] and have been shown to be essential to better understand the lived experience and everyday workings of health systems and technologies in real-world settings (e.g., [ 2 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]). However, these methods were employed in only a small proportion of studies reported in these papers.

Our analysis reveals stark geographic disparities in the research ecosystem in terms of funding, author affiliation, and the location of study sites. Study sites were highly concentrated, with nearly half of reported study sites located in only five LMICs. As most studies were a companion to an intervention or trial, the narrowness of study locations is likely driven by funding priorities, and existing partnerships of HIC-based institutions. Not only is funding concentrated in a few HICs, with fully half of all funding credits to institutions based in the United States alone, it is also concentrated among a narrow group of institutions. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation emerged as the dominant funding institution, credited with providing funding for one in every five papers. Arguably, no other entity has been more instrumental in setting the terms in the transition from international to global health and driving technological solutions to global health [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ]. Yet there is potential for important research topics and questions to be occluded when research funding on a technology is controlled by actors who are also its proponents and funders [ 50 , 51 ].

The geographical distribution of author institutions is also revealing. In recent years, numerous calls have been made to decolonise global health research and address the “epistemic injustice” of moral wrongs which occur in relation to knowledge production, use, and circulation, in global health [ 52 , 53 , 54 ]. One pathway towards epistemic justice involves attention to inclusive authorship [ 55 , 56 , 57 ]. First authorship is often considered a proxy for leadership of a paper [ 57 ], and our mapping highlights the striking density of first authorship affiliation in HIC-based institutions, with approximately two-thirds of first author affiliations based in HICs. For all other author institutions, the margin was much narrower between LMIC- and HIC-based institutions, with only slightly more author affiliations located in HICs. The close parity between HICs and LMICs in terms of non-first authorship might be seen as progress in authorial equity, although several studies have highlighted the risk that authors from LMICs get ‘stuck-in-the middle’ of the author list, or that their inclusion becomes symbolic ‘guest authorship’ instead of a genuine opportunity to make a conceptual and analytical contribution, as scientific authorship usually entails [ 52 , 54 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 ].

Our findings likely reflect inequities in both the geographic distribution of research funding and additional institutional infrastructures, resources, and support available to scholars in HICs when compared to scholars in LMICs. The authorship of this paper is a case in point and indicates the difficulty of addressing these inequities within current structures of employment and funding, even when researchers are aware of current debates around decolonising global health [ 62 , 63 , 64 ]. Broadening authorship can ensure that the questions posed and interpretation of results are relevant to global health practice in LMICs and enhance the accessibility of results to LMIC audiences.

At a structural level, these geographic disparities might also be viewed as a symptom of a persistent colonial legacy within global health [ 65 ]. Our findings therefore illustrate the continued importance of addressing equity in research expertise on global health technologies as part of broader agendas to decolonise global health. Building research capacity in LMICs to drive global health research is crucial to advancing epistemic justice and addressing global health challenges [ 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 ], and investing in LMIC capacity for interpretive and critical social science research in particular, with its commitment to the philosophical and social justice principles fundamental to decolonisation [ 70 ], may open promising pathways towards expanding epistemic justice.

If the conditions of knowledge production in this field are heavily circumscribed, our findings show that the scope of this body of research is equally narrow. The research we mapped is overwhelmingly skewed toward two health conditions: HIV and malaria. While this may be explained by these being some of the earliest introduced tests, this likely also reflects the extent to which qualitative social research has followed the funding priorities of HIC-based global health institutions, for which malaria and HIV have been priorities for several decades. It is notable that very few studies focused on non-communicable diseases, despite these increasingly contributing to disease burdens in LMICs [ 71 , 72 ], and many tests considered ‘essential’ by the WHO’s Essential Diagnostic List [ 24 ], such as those for TB, diabetes and syphilis in pregnancy, and hepatitis B infection during pregnancy, are under-represented or not represented at all in the included studies. Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) were also under-represented, with only three papers reporting of use of POCTs for NTDs, with human African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, and yaws considered in one paper each. This represents an important gap, with expanding access to POCTs for diagnosing NTDs a core component of the global road map to prevent, control, eliminate, or eradicate 20 NTDs by 2030 [ 73 ].

Papers overwhelmingly reported on the moment in which POCTs were used, leaving knowledge related to other lifecycle moments marginalised, such as how tests are developed, manufactured and regulated, and supplied, and issues around waste management in contexts in which waste management is known to be especially challenging [ 74 ]. The papers also reported primarily on POCT use in public health settings; a particularly glaring blind spot given that private health services are becoming dominant in health service delivery throughout LMICs [ 75 ]. It is critical to understand how the value of POCTs are transformed in health marketplaces and what this means for how they are used and how they affect follow-up action.

Although the number of qualitative research publications exploring POCTs in LMICs has increased year-on-year since 2007, fewer than 20 studies were published each year, suggesting that qualitative social research remains an underused resource in this area. However, the findings of this mapping also indicate striking densities of evidence and substantial blind spots in qualitative social research on global health technologies such as POCTs. In addition to increasing the quantity of qualitative research in this area, and LMIC capacity to drive this research, we therefore argue that it is equally important to increase the breadth of research, including across test type, geographies, settings and perspectives, in order to fully understand the social relations and dynamics involved in their development and deployment, and the implications for global health access and equity.

Indeed, we suggest that a potential link might be drawn between our finding that the conditions of knowledge production in qualitative social research on POCTs in LMICs are narrow, and the finding that the scope of that research is equally limited in breadth. The conditions of knowledge production created by the research ecosystem shape all phases of research, from conceptualisation, to carrying out the research, analysis and interpretation, to who ultimately has access to it. Reflecting on and addressing inequities, imbalances, and omissions in the conditions of knowledge production is therefore crucial for purposes of epistemic justice and scientific integrity.

Limitations

An important limitation of our study was our inability to adequately capture research generated in an intra- and post-COVID-19 context. COVID-19 was monumental in generating momentum for and normalising the decentralised use of POCTs, yet our search identified surprisingly few papers reporting on studies related to COVID-19 testing in LMICs. While COVID-19-related studies tended to be fast-tracked and prioritised, it seems that few entirely qualitative studies were published through these routes. We assume that this is at least in part due to the slower nature of producing qualitative evidence [ 76 , 77 ].

Another limitation of the study is that we did not search for studies published before 2000. It is possible that we missed some early work, as some POCTs were in circulation prior to this. However, we are confident that few studies would have been missed, given that the earliest study identified in our search was published in 2007.

A further limitation of this study remains that its authorship is based primarily in HIC contexts. Indeed, authors from HICs have posed the questions, determined the methods, and interpreted the results even as we critique the predominance of HIC institution density in the generation of research. It also reflects the interpretations and conclusions of social scientists, and the desire to see more research that draws from social science epistemologies—work that is currently more often carried out in HICs than LMICs.

This mapping exercise examined the conditions of qualitative knowledge production and global health research ecosystem related to one quintessential area of technology-driven global health practice—POCTs for use in LMICs. While numerous qualitative and social science researchers have responded to the call to generate knowledge related to the development, deployment, and use of diagnostics in LMICs, the overall body of research that has emerged from these efforts is highly concentrated in scope and overwhelmingly focuses on testing in the context of a narrow number of donor-supported vertical disease-control programmes. One potential factor in the limited breadth and the depth of research in this area, we argue, has been the predominant contextualisation of qualitative research within quantitative trial and intervention studies, driven largely by HICs through funding streams and expertise.

To optimise the potential contributions of qualitative research in global health, we suggest that successful research ecosystems would enable researchers to broaden their inquiries, in terms of their scope, underpinning epistemologies, and how studies are carried out. For POCTs in LMICs, this includes consideration of a wider range of health conditions, tests, settings and perspectives, particularly outside of trial contexts, driven by priorities and questions posed by LMIC actors, as well as a more expansive use of qualitative methods. This would require increased investment in social science capacity in LMICs, and, given the current structures of the global health political economy, a recognition by donors of the importance of building up such capacity and moving beyond a conceptualisation of qualitative social research as an adjunct to vertical programmes. A rich, diverse, and equitable research ecosystem is essential to move beyond siloed perspectives, foster critical perspectives on global health technologies and health systems strengthening, and formulate new understandings of and solutions to global inequities in access to health care.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analysed during the current study will be made available on the Edinburgh DataShare digital repository. The protocol for this study is registered with Prospero, ID number: CRD42022366518. It can be accessed at: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42022366518 . See also Additional file 10 for a summary of the papers included in this evidence mapping.

While this figure suggests a linearity of the POCT life cycle, we recognise the life cycle as not linear, but iterative, with particular moments informing other moments across the cycle (see also Engel, 2020).

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge Ruth McQuillan and Evropi Theodoratou for their contributions to the design and management aspects of this review.

This research was supported by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant number 715450).

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JP conceptualised and developed the original draft of the manuscript as a first author under the guidance of AS, who provided direction and feedback to JP at every stage as a senior author. CC and AK provided conceptual input throughout the study design, data analysis and interpretation. EM contributed to the study design and supported project administration. MD provided expert guidance to JP in selecting the databases for the search and designing the search strategies, and ongoing support throughout the search processes. SN, EB, NA, EA, JR, and KK contributed to the screening and data extraction. AM, SN, EB, EM contributed to data analysis. KK extracted and analysed data from the seven Portuguese papers included in the study. JR extracted and analysed data from the Spanish paper included in the study. All authors reviewed and shared feedback on the manuscript and approved the final draft. JP and AS had access to all data and take full responsibility for its integrity and the accuracy of the analyses.

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Supplementary Information

Additional file 1..

Search Strategies.

Additional file 2.

Selection criteria.

Additional file 3.

Reported research methods.

Additional file 4.

Chronology of reported health conditions.

Additional file 5.

Chronology of HIV and malaria-reporting papers.

Additional file 6.

Reported test format.

Additional file 7.

Study setting.

Additional file 8.

Reported settings as public or private.

Additional file 9.

Reported perspectives.

Additional file 10.

Summary of included papers.

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Perkins, J., Nelson, S., Birley, E. et al. Is qualitative social research in global health fulfilling its potential?: a systematic evidence mapping of research on point-of-care testing in low- and middle-income contexts. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 172 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10645-5

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“Our modeling suggests that shallow moonquakes capable of producing strong ground shaking in the south polar region are possible from slip events on existing faults or the formation of new thrust faults,” said Tom Watters of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, lead author of a paper on the research published January 25 in the Planetary Science Journal. “The global distribution of young thrust faults, their potential to be active, and the potential to form new thrust faults from ongoing global contraction should be considered when planning the location and stability of permanent outposts on the Moon.”

Image of a lunar fault.

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera onboard NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) has detected thousands of relatively small, young thrust faults widely distributed in the lunar crust . The scarps are cliff-like landforms that resemble small stair-steps on the lunar surface. They form where contractional forces break the crust and push or thrust it on one side of the fault up and over the other side. The contraction is caused by cooling of the Moon’s still-hot interior and tidal forces exerted by Earth, resulting in global shrinking.

Diagram of lunar fault formation process.

The formation of the faults is accompanied by seismic activity in the form of shallow-depth moonquakes. Such shallow moonquakes were recorded by the Apollo Passive Seismic Network, a series of seismometers deployed by the Apollo astronauts . The strongest recorded shallow moonquake had an epicenter in the south-polar region. One young thrust-fault scarp, located within the de Gerlache Rim 2, an Artemis III candidate landing region , is modeled in the study and shows that the formation of this fault scarp could have been associated with a moonquake of the recorded magnitude.

The team also modeled the stability of surface slopes in the lunar south polar region and found that some areas are susceptible to regolith landslides from even light seismic shaking, including areas in some permanently shadowed regions. These areas are of interest due to the resources that might be found there, such as ice.

Map showing areas with landslide potential at lunar south pole.

“To better understand the seismic hazard posed to future human activities on the Moon, we need new seismic data, not just at the South Pole, but globally,” said Renee Weber, a co-author of the paper at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama. “Missions like the upcoming Farside Seismic Suite will expand upon measurements made during Apollo and add to our knowledge of global seismicity.”

“LRO is committed to acquiring data of the lunar surface to aid scientists in understanding important features such as thrust faults,” said LRO Deputy Project Scientist Maria Banks of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, a co-author of the paper. “This study is a good demonstration of one of the many ways in which LRO data is being used to assist planning for our return to the Moon.”

This research was funded by NASA’s LRO mission, launched on June 18, 2009. LRO is managed by NASA Goddard for the Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington. With Artemis missions, NASA is exploring the Moon for scientific discovery, technology advancement, and to learn how to live and work on another world as we prepare for human missions to Mars. We will collaborate with commercial and international partners and establish the first long-term presence on the Moon. NASA will land the first woman and first person of color on the Moon, using innovative technologies to explore more of the lunar surface than ever before.

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Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on March 27, 2023.

Writing a Research Paper Introduction

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

  • Present your topic and get the reader interested
  • Provide background or summarize existing research
  • Position your own approach
  • Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
  • Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

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Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

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This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

  • What research gap is your work intended to fill?
  • What limitations in previous work does it address?
  • What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

  • This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
  • We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

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The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

  • This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
  • This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

  • Argumentative paper
  • Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

  • A hook to catch the reader’s interest
  • Relevant background on the topic
  • Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

  • A thesis statement or research question
  • Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

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Caulfield, J. (2023, March 27). Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide. Scribbr. Retrieved February 13, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-paper/research-paper-introduction/

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The Supreme Court seems poised to reject efforts to kick Trump off the ballot over the Capitol riot

Lengthy arguments took place on Thursday at the U.S. Supreme Court over former President Donald Trump’s ineligibility case, but the Justices found space for levity nonetheless. (Feb. 8)

how to make results in research paper

The Supreme Court weighs arguments over whether former President Donald Trump is disqualified from reclaiming the White House because of his efforts to undo his loss in the 2020 election, ending with the Jan. 6, 2021, attack on the U.S. Capitol. (Feb. 8)

how to make results in research paper

Dozens of demonstrators gathered outside the Supreme Court Thursday as oral arguments got underway over whether former President Donald Trump is ineligible to be president again and can be kept off the ballot. (Feb. 8)

Myra Slotnick of Provincetown, Mass., holds placards in front of the U.S. Supreme Court, Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Washington. The U.S. Supreme Court on Thursday will take up a historic case that could decide whether Donald Trump is ineligible for the 2024 ballot under Section 3 of the 14th Amendment. (AP Photo/Manuel Balce Ceneta)

Myra Slotnick of Provincetown, Mass., holds placards in front of the U.S. Supreme Court, Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Washington. The U.S. Supreme Court on Thursday will take up a historic case that could decide whether Donald Trump is ineligible for the 2024 ballot under Section 3 of the 14th Amendment. (AP Photo/Manuel Balce Ceneta)

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This artist sketch depicts the scene in the Supreme Court as the justices hear arguments about the Colorado Supreme Court’s ruling that former President Donald Trump should be removed from the primary ballot, Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Washington. Jonathan Mitchell, right, a former Texas solicitor general, argues on behalf of former President Donald Trump, as Shannon Stevenson, the solicitor general of Colorado, sits behind Mitchell, before arguing on behalf of Colorado’s secretary of state. Listening from left are Justice Amy Coney Barrett, Justice Neil Gorsuch, Justice Sonia Sotomayor, Justice Clarence Thomas, Chief Justice John Roberts, Justice Samuel Alito, Justice Elena Kagan, Justice Brett Kavanaugh and Justice Ketanji Brown Jackson. (Dana Verkouteren via AP)

This artist sketch depicts the scene in the Supreme Court as the justices hear arguments about the Colorado Supreme Court’s ruling that former President Donald Trump should be removed from the primary ballot, Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Washington. Jonathan Mitchell, right, a former Texas solicitor general, argues on behalf of former President Donald Trump. Listening from left are Justice Amy Coney Barrett, Justice Neil Gorsuch, Justice Sonia Sotomayor, Justice Clarence Thomas, Chief Justice John Roberts, Justice Samuel Alito, Justice Elena Kagan, Justice Brett Kavanaugh and Justice Ketanji Brown Jackson. (Dana Verkouteren via AP)

Demonstrators hold a banner outside of the U.S. Supreme Court, Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Washington. The U.S. Supreme Court on Thursday will take up a historic case that could decide whether Donald Trump is ineligible for the 2024 ballot under Section 3 of the 14th Amendment. (AP Photo/Jose Luis Magana)

A demonstrator holds a banner outside of the U.S. Supreme Court, Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Washington. The U.S. Supreme Court on Thursday will take up a historic case that could decide whether Donald Trump is ineligible for the 2024 ballot under Section 3 of the 14th Amendment. (AP Photo/Jose Luis Magana)

Republican presidential candidate former President Donald Trump speaks at his Mar-a-Lago estate Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Palm Beach, Fla. ((AP Photo/Rebecca Blackwell)

Colorado Secretary of State Jena Griswold speaks in front of the U.S. Supreme Court, Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Washington. The U.S. Supreme Court on Thursday will take up a historic case that could decide whether Donald Trump is ineligible for the 2024 ballot under Section 3 of the 14th Amendment. (AP Photo/Manuel Balce Ceneta)

Protesters hold their banners in front of the U.S. Supreme Court, Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Washington. (AP Photo/Manuel Balce Ceneta)

Republican presidential candidate former President Donald Trump arrives to speak at his Mar-a-Lago estate Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Palm Beach, Fla.(AP Photo/Rebecca Blackwell)

Bill Christeson holds a banner in front of the U.S. Supreme Court, Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Washington. The U.S. Supreme Court on Thursday will take up a historic case that could decide whether Donald Trump is ineligible for the 2024 ballot under Section 3 of the 14th Amendment. (AP Photo/Manuel Balce Ceneta)

Demonstrators hold up signs outside of the U.S. Supreme Court, Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Washington. The U.S. Supreme Court on Thursday will take up a historic case that could decide whether Donald Trump is ineligible for the 2024 ballot under Section 3 of the 14th Amendment. (AP Photo/Jose Luis Magana)

Myra Slotnick of Provincetown, Mass., holds banners in front of the U.S. Supreme Court, Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Washington. (AP Photo/Manuel Balce Ceneta)

Republican presidential candidate former President Donald Trump speaks at his Mar-a-Lago estate Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Palm Beach, Fla. (AP Photo/Rebecca Blackwell)

WASHINGTON (AP) — The Supreme Court seems poised to reject attempts to kick former President Donald Trump off the 2024 ballot , with conservative and liberal justices in apparent agreement in a case that puts them at the heart of a presidential election.

A definitive ruling for Trump, the leading Republican candidate for president, would largely end efforts in Colorado , Maine and elsewhere to prevent his name from appearing on the ballot.

The justices could act quickly, possibly by Super Tuesday on March 5, when Colorado, Maine and 13 other states will hold primaries.

Conservative and liberal justices alike questioned during arguments Thursday whether Trump can be disqualified from being president again because of his efforts to undo his loss in the 2020 election to Democrat Joe Biden, ending with the Jan. 6, 2021, attack on the U.S. Capitol.

Their main concern was whether Congress must act before states can invoke a constitutional provision that was adopted after the Civil War to prevent former officeholders who “engaged in insurrection” from holding office again. There also were questions about whether the president is covered by the provision.

In the first ruling of its kind, Colorado’s Supreme Court decided that the provision, Section 3 of the 14th amendment, could be applied to Trump, who the court found incited the Capitol attack.

But on a Supreme Court that prefers to avoid cases in which it is the final arbiter of a political dispute, the justices appeared to be searching for a consensus ruling and the issue of congressional action seemed to draw the most support.

Justice Elena Kagan was among several justices who wanted to know “why a single state should decide who gets to be president of the United States.”

Demonstrators hold a banner outside of the U.S. Supreme Court, Thursday, Feb. 8, 2024, in Washington. The U.S. Supreme Court on Thursday will take up a historic case that could decide whether Donald Trump is ineligible for the 2024 ballot under Section 3 of the 14th Amendment. (AP Photo/Jose Luis Magana)

Eight of the nine justices suggested that they were open to at least some of the arguments made by Jonathan Mitchell, Trump’s lawyer at the Supreme Court. Trump could win his case if the court finds just one of those arguments persuasive.

Justice Sonia Sotomayor sounded most skeptical of Mitchell’s arguments, though she too might not vote to uphold the Colorado ruling that found that Trump “engaged in insurrection” and is ineligible to be president.

In another sign of trouble for the Colorado voters who sued to remove Trump from the ballot, the justices spent little time talking about whether Trump actually “engaged in insurrection” following the 2020 election.

Lawyer Jason Murray, representing the voters, pressed the point that Trump incited the Capitol attack to prevent the peaceful handover of power “for the first time in history.”

Mitchell argued that the Capitol riot was not an insurrection and, even if it was, Trump did not directly participate.

Trump, speaking to reporters after the proceedings, called the Supreme Court argument “a beautiful thing to watch in many respects,” even as he complained about the case being brought in the first place.

“I hope that democracy in this country will continue,” he told reporters at his Mar-a-Lago club in Florida.

AP journalists are covering this historic case inside the courtroom and out. Follow our live updates here .

Trump could be back before the Supreme Court in a matter of days to seek an emergency order to keep his election subversion trial on hold so he can appeal lower-court rulings that he is not immune from criminal charges.

That issue had a brief airing Thursday, when Justice Brett Kavanaugh said a more legally sound approach to disqualifying someone from office is found in a federal criminal statute against insurrection.

Someone prosecuted for insurrection “if convicted, could be or shall be disqualified” from office, Kavanaugh said.

Mitchell agreed, but with a caveat, Trump’s claim of immunity. “So we would not concede that he can be prosecuted for what he did on January 6th,” Mitchell said.

The exchange was largely hypothetical because, while Trump faces criminal charges related to Jan. 6, he has not been charged under the insurrection statute.

The justices heard more than two hours of history-laden arguments in their first case considering Section 3 of the 14th amendment.

Chief Justice John Roberts worried that a ruling against Trump would prompt efforts to disqualify other candidates, “and surely some of those will succeed.”

Trump’s lawyers argue that the amendment can’t be used to keep Trump off the ballot for several reasons.

For one thing, they contend the Jan. 6 riot wasn’t an insurrection, and even if it was, Trump did not go to the Capitol or join the rioters. The wording of the amendment also excludes the presidency and candidates running for president, they say. Even if they are wrong about all of that, they argue that Congress must pass legislation to reinvigorate Section 3.

Sotomayor at one point gently mocked part of Mitchell’s argument for why Trump is not covered by Section 3. “A bit of a gerrymandered rule, isn’t it, designed to benefit only your client?” Sotomayor said.

The lawyers for Republican and independent voters who sued to remove Trump’s name from the Colorado ballot counter that there is ample evidence that the events of Jan. 6 constituted an insurrection and that Trump incited it. They say it would be absurd to apply Section 3 to everything but the presidency or that Trump is somehow exempt. And the provision needs no enabling legislation, they argue.

But Murray face sustained, difficult questioning across the high-court bench, including from Justice Neil Gorsuch and Kagan, two justices for whom Murray once worked as a clerk.

If the court in the end upholds the Colorado decision, it would amount to a stunning declaration that Trump did engage in insurrection and is barred by the 14th Amendment from holding office again. That would allow states to keep him off the ballot and imperil his campaign.

The justices could opt for a less conclusive outcome, but with the knowledge that the issue could return to them, perhaps after the general election in November and in the midst of a full-blown constitutional crisis.

Trump is separately appealing to state court a ruling by Maine’s Democratic secretary of state, Shenna Bellows, that he was ineligible to appear on that state’s ballot over his role in the Capitol attack . Both the Colorado Supreme Court and the Maine secretary of state’s rulings are on hold until the appeals play out.

The issues may be novel, but Trump is no stranger to the justices, three of whom Trump appointed when he was president. They have considered many Trump-related cases in recent years, declining to embrace his claims of fraud in the 2020 election and refusing to shield tax records from Congress and prosecutors in New York.

In addition to the immunity issue, the court also will hear an appeal in April from one of the more than 1,200 people charged in the Capitol riot . The case could upend a charge prosecutors have brought against more than 300 people, including Trump.

The court last played so central a role in presidential politics in its 5-4 decision that effectively ended the disputed 2000 election in favor of George W. Bush.

Justice Clarence Thomas is the only member of the court who also took part in Bush v. Gore. Thomas has ignored calls by some Democratic lawmakers to step aside from the case because his wife, Ginni, supported Trump’s effort to overturn the 2020 election results and attended the rally that preceded the storming of the Capitol by Trump supporters.

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    Dissertation How to Write a Results Section | Tips & Examples How to Write a Results Section | Tips & Examples Published on August 30, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on July 18, 2023. A results section is where you report the main findings of the data collection and analysis you conducted for your thesis or dissertation.

  2. Research Results Section

    Research results refer to the findings and conclusions derived from a systematic investigation or study conducted to answer a specific question or hypothesis. These results are typically presented in a written report or paper and can include various forms of data such as numerical data, qualitative data, statistics, charts, graphs, and visual aids.

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    Always use simple and clear language. Avoid the use of uncertain or out-of-focus expressions. The findings of the study must be expressed in an objective and unbiased manner. While it is acceptable to correlate certain findings in the discussion section, it is best to avoid overinterpreting the results.

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    Present the results of the paper, in logical order, using tables and graphs as necessary. Explain the results and show how they help to answer the research questions posed in the Introduction. Evidence does not explain itself; the results must be presented and then explained.

  6. Reporting Research Results in APA Style

    How to write an APA results section Reporting Research Results in APA Style | Tips & Examples Published on December 21, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on January 17, 2024. The results section of a quantitative research paper is where you summarize your data and report the findings of any relevant statistical analyses.

  7. PDF Results Section for Research Papers

    Methodology Findings/Results Discussion Conclusion The results (or findings) section is one of the most important parts of a research paper, in which an author reports the findings of their study in connection to their research question(s). The results section should not attempt to interpret or analyze the findings, only state the facts.

  8. How to Write the Results Section of a Research Paper

    Select a few papers from your field, including some published in your target journal, which you consider 'good quality' and well written. Read them carefully and observe how the Results section is structured, the type and amount of information provided, and how the findings are exposed in a logical order.

  9. 7. The Results

    For most research papers in the social and behavioral sciences, there are two possible ways of organizing the results. Both approaches are appropriate in how you report your findings, but use only one approach. Present a synopsis of the results followed by an explanation of key findings. This approach can be used to highlight important findings.

  10. Guide to Writing the Results and Discussion Sections of a ...

    The results section of your research paper contains a description about the main findings of your research, whereas the discussion section interprets the results for readers and provides the significance of the findings. The discussion should not repeat the results.

  11. The Principles of Biomedical Scientific Writing: Results

    1. Context. The "results section" is the heart of the paper, around which the other sections are organized ().Research is about results and the reader comes to the paper to discover the results ().In this section, authors contribute to the development of scientific literature by providing novel, hitherto unknown knowledge ().In addition to the results, this section contains data and ...

  12. How to Write a Research Paper

    Develop a thesis statement Create a research paper outline Write a first draft of the research paper Write the introduction Write a compelling body of text Write the conclusion The second draft The revision process Research paper checklist Free lecture slides Understand the assignment

  13. A Guide to Writing an Effective Results Section for Your Research Paper

    A results section is the third component of a research paper that follows the introduction and methodology sections. This third component provides researchers with the opportunity to objectively ...

  14. How to Present Results in a Research Paper

    First Online: 01 October 2023 439 Accesses Abstract The results section is the core of a research manuscript where the study data and analyses are presented in an organized, uncluttered manner such that the reader can easily understand and interpret the findings.

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    Result Section Examples Mistakes to Avoid When Writing Results Section of Research Paper What is the Result Section of a Research Paper? The results section of a research paper is a critical component that presents the key findings derived from the study.

  16. Results Section Of Research Paper: All You Need To Know

    However, state the findings without interpreting them. For instance, you can find a correlation between variables when analyzing data. In that case, your results section can explain this correlation without speculating about the causes of this correlation. Here's what to include in the results section of research paper:

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    report on the findings from relevant and appropriate inferential statistical analyses and interpretation that are aimed at answering your academic article's research questions or supporting your hypotheses, and show your research significance. For an organized Research Results section, it's best to use sub-sections.

  18. How to Write a Results Section

    Checklist: Research results 0 / 7. I have completed my data collection and analyzed the results. I have included all results that are relevant to my research questions. I have concisely and objectively reported each result, including relevant descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. I have stated whether each hypothesis was supported ...

  19. How to clearly articulate results and construct tables and figures in a

    Go to: Writing the 'Results' section The 'Results' section is perhaps the most important part of a research article. In fact the authors will share the results of their research/study with their readers.

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    How to Structure the Results Section: Start with a summary of the research aims and questions so that you can get your readers focused on the core of your study. Use the past tense and active ...

  21. Writing a Research Paper Conclusion

    Step 1: Restate the problem Step 2: Sum up the paper Step 3: Discuss the implications Research paper conclusion examples Frequently asked questions about research paper conclusions Step 1: Restate the problem The first task of your conclusion is to remind the reader of your research problem.

  22. How to write a conclusion for a research paper and examples

    The main goal of a summarising conclusion is to reword the main points of the study. Do this in a way that is easy to understand. For instance, a paper on alcohol consumption might conclude that a moderate level of alcohol consumption can improve your cognitive functioning, while excessive consumption can lead to memory loss and brain damage.

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  24. Is qualitative social research in global health fulfilling its

    Qualitative social research has made valuable contributions to understanding technology-based interventions in global health. However, we have little evidence of who is carrying out this research, where, how, for what purpose, or the overall scope of this body of work. To address these questions, we undertook a systematic evidence mapping of one area of technology-focused research in global ...

  25. Shrinking Moon Causing Moonquakes and Faults Near Lunar South Pole

    The contraction is caused by cooling of the Moon's still-hot interior and tidal forces exerted by Earth, resulting in global shrinking. The lobate scarps are formed when the lunar crust is pushed together as the Moon contracts. This causes the near-surface materials to break forming a thrust fault. The thrust fault carries crustal materials ...

  26. Writing a Research Paper Introduction

    Step 1: Introduce your topic Step 2: Describe the background Step 3: Establish your research problem Step 4: Specify your objective (s) Step 5: Map out your paper Research paper introduction examples Frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction Step 1: Introduce your topic

  27. Supreme Court poised to reject kicking Trump off ballot

    8) WASHINGTON (AP) — The Supreme Court seems poised to reject attempts to kick former President Donald Trump off the 2024 ballot, with conservative and liberal justices in apparent agreement in a case that puts them at the heart of a presidential election. A definitive ruling for Trump, the leading Republican candidate for president, would ...